Tuesday, April 21, 2009

Rice cooker

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Electric rice cooker including scoop, before cooking
For the car and motorcycle term, see Rice burner.
Please help improve this article or section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page. (April 2008)
A rice cooker or rice steamer is a device used primarily for cooking rice. There are self-contained electrical versions, as well as microwave and gas variants.
Contents
1 Electric rice cookers
1.1 Basic principle of operation
1.2 Cooking rice with an electric rice cooker
2 Microwave rice cookers
3 Rice cooker techniques
4 Miscellaneous
5 Production
6 See also
7 External links
//
Electric rice cookers
The preparation of rice has traditionally been a cooking process which requires attention to ensure the rice is cooked properly. Rice cookers simplify the process by automatically controlling the heat and timing, while at the same time freeing up a heating element on the range. Although the rice cooker does not necessarily speed up the cooking process, the cook's involvement in cooking rice with a rice cooker is reduced to simply using the correct amount of water. Once the rice cooker is set to cook, the rice will be cooked with no further attention.
Typically, a rice cooker contains an insulated outer container containing a heating element, into which is fitted an inner removable bowl, which is sometimes non-stick or teflon-coated, which often has graduations marked in cups of rice (white). Whereas less expensive and older models use simple electronics and mechanical and thermal sensors, high-end rice cookers use microprocessors to control the cooking process and often incorporate a timer which can be used to set the desired "ready time". Some higher-end rice cookers use induction heating. Many rice cookers can keep rice warm safely for up to 24 hours. This helps to avoid the dangers of food poisoning due to Bacillus cereus. New rice cookers normally include a small measuring cup, and a plastic paddle for serving the cooked rice. The rice cup measure is normally 180 ml, approximately 25% smaller than the American measuring cup of 8 (US) fluid ounces / 250 ml.
Restaurants that serve a lot of rice, particularly those specializing in Asian cuisine, often use industrial size rice cookers that quickly and cheaply produce large quantities of cooked rice. A rice cooker is a standard appliance in kitchens in many Asian countries and in many Asian households; indeed a recent survey showed that over 95% of Japanese kitchens feature such a device[1].
Basic principle of operation
The bowl in the rice cooker is usually removable, and beneath it lie a heater and a thermostat. These form the main components of the rice cooker. A spring pushes the thermostat against the bottom of the bowl, for good thermal contact to ensure accurate temperature measurement. During cooking the rice/water mixture is heated at full power. The temperature cannot go above the boiling point of water 100鐧� (212鐧�) as any heat put into the rice/water mixture at that point will only cause the water to boil. At the end of cooking, some of the water will have been absorbed by the rice and the rest is boiled off. Once the heating continues past that point, the temperature exceeds the boiling point. The thermostat then trips, switching the rice cooker to low power "warming" mode, keeping the rice no cooler than approximately 65鐧� (150鐧�). Simple rice cookers, like the one below, may simply turn off at that point.

Inexpensive electric rice cooker after cooking
Cooking rice with an electric rice cooker
The rice is measured and added to the inner bowl. Cold water is measured and added or the bowl is simply filled up to the appropriate graduated mark in the inner bowl.
Different kinds of rice require different amounts of water. Usually, there are graduated marks for the right amount of water only for white rice, but sometimes there are separate scales for brown rice (as more water is required) or for cooking other food in the appliance.
Once the lid is closed and the cooking cycle has been activated, the rice cooker does the rest. Higher-end models give a countdown in minutes to the "ready time," or beep when done. Many people prefer to let the rice soak for a while before cooking the rice; additionally, some like to allow the rice to "rest" for a while after cooking before eating the rice. Higher-end models automatically time the soaking and resting periods.
Microwave rice cookers
A microwave rice cooker is a microwavable container designed specifically for cooking rice. It consists of three parts: an outer bowl, a fitted lid with steam vents, and an inner bowl with a finely perforated base. A measured amount of dry rice is placed within the inner bowl, which is then washed through with running water to remove surface starch...(and so on)

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7 for all Mankind

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(Redirected from Seven for all Mankind)

7 For All Mankind's Original pocket stitching
7 For All Mankind (often referred to simply as Seven or Seven Jeans) is brand of a designer jeans owned since 2007 by the VF Corporation. Prior to its acquisiition by VF, Seven Jeans was a California-based designer jeans company founded by Michael Glasser, Peter Koral, and Jerome Dahan in 2000 and headquartered in Los Angeles, California.
7 for All Mankind began by designing women's jeans. It later introduced a men's jeans line in fall 2002, and its Children Denim Collection for boys and girls in fall 2005. In addition to jeans, 7 for All Mankind produces other clothing items such as skirts, shorts, and denim jackets. The brand is sold in over 80 countries including Western Europe, Canada, and Japan.[1]
Contents
1 History
2 Designers
3 Brand
4 Apparel
5 External links
6 Footnotes
//
History
The two partners brought in Peter Koral of L'Koral for financial backing. Dahan and Glasser, denim designers who had worked in the apparel industry for years, created the company in response to what they saw as a void in the contemporary denim market. Fashion denim had not been seen in the United States for over 20 years and the most popular style for apparel was baggy, street-inspired jeans. Focusing on women's denim bottoms, the company enjoyed near-overnight success because of the fit, fabrics, washes, attention to detail, and the iconic swooping logo that adorned the product's back pockets.[2] A myriad of designer denim upstarts followed Seven in Los Angeles, making it the world center for casual fashion.[3]
Designers
7 For All Mankind jeans are often rather tight and low-rise which the company was largely responsible for popularizing the style[4] and many products feature elements of distressing. Distressed denim is intentionally manufactured with rips, holes, or stains for the purpose of making it appear worn, or vintage. 7 For All Mankind's proximity to Los Angeles makes the brand popular with celebrities and urban, fashion-conscious young adults.[5]
7 For All Mankind's design team includes Tim Kaeding and Larissa Noble, both of whom have worked extensively in denim design. During his four-year career with The Gap, Kaeding designed the women's denim line and the 1969 premium label. He successfully contemporized the basic image using some of the best denims and laundries in the world. Prior to that, he designed exclusively for his private label, Timothy Kaeding, a high-end sportswear line based out of New York. Larissa Noble graduated from Parsons School of Design and worked as a costume designer in Los Angeles as well as on the design team for Ellen Tracy before joining 7 For All Mankind.
Brand
The 7 For All Mankind brand has strong recognition worldwide and is particularly well known among celebrities and fashion-conscious denim consumers. The 7 For All Mankind logo consists of a large, brushstroke-style numeral 7 with the words "for all mankind" written across it in a smaller, stylized script. This logo has traditionally been found on the inside back waistband of 7 For All Mankind's denim products as well as sewn on to the back pocket. The 7 For All Mankind logo appears in various locations on other products such as footwear and handbags. In some European markets, the logo features a stylized pair of jeans as the background element rather than the numeral 7.
Apparel
7 For All Mankind has various pocket embroidery designs on their jeans. One is their signature squiggle logo which is found on bootcut jeans, low-rise jeans, straight leg, boycut, wide leg, Jagger, Colette, Roxanne and others. Their A-pocket jean consists of an "A" stitched on the pocket and sometimes incorporating Swarovski Crystals. The Dojo jean consists of a "7" on the pocket, the Kate features V-shaped embroidery, and many other designs exist on various styles. It is not always possible to determine the cut or fit of a 7 For All Mankind jean by the pocket design alone.
The women's line of jeans includes a variety of fits such as: Bootcut, low-rise, A-pocket, Kate, wide leg, flare, Dojo, Jagger, Flynt and others. The men's line includes: Bootcut, Relaxed, Flynt, A-pocket, Slimmy, Slouchy, Standard and others.
Both the men's and women's line feature a variety of "washes" which combine fabric, color, and finishing techniques in unique combinations. Washes include New York Dark, Medium Chicago, Bombay, and others.
The fits, washes and pocket designs available change with each fashion season.
In 2006, 7 For All Mankind introduced a full apparel line including men's and women's outerwear, sportswear, women's dresses, and woven shirts for men. The apparel line is available on their website, select Neiman Marcus locations, and the new 7 For All Mankind standalone retail stores in downtown Los...(and so on)

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Sphalerite

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Sphalerite sample

Another sphalerite sample

The unit cell of sphalerite
"Zincblende" redirects here. For the crystal structure, see Zincblende (crystal structure).
Sphalerite ((Zn,Fe)S) is a mineral that is the chief ore of zinc. It consists largely of zinc sulfide in crystalline form but almost always contains variable iron. When iron content is high it is an opaque black variety, marmatite. It is usually found in association with galena, pyrite, and other sulfides along with calcite, dolomite, and fluorite. Miners have also been known to refer to sphalerite as zinc blende, mock lead, false galena and black-jack.
The mineral crystallizes in the cubic crystal system. In the crystal structure, zinc and sulfur atoms are tetrahedrally coordinated. The structure is closely related to the structure of diamond. The hexagonal analog is known as the wurtzite structure. The lattice constant for zinc sulfide in the zincblende crystal structure is 0.596 nm, calculated from geometry and ionic radii of 0.074 nm (zinc) and 0.184 nm (sulfide). It forms ABCABC layers.
Its color is usually yellow, brown, or gray to gray-black, and it may be shiny or dull. Its luster is adamantine, resinous to submetallic for high iron varieties. It has a yellow or light brown streak, a hardness of 3.5 - 4, and a specific gravity of 3.9-4.1. Some specimens have a red iridescence within the gray-black crystals; these are called "ruby sphalerite." The pale yellow and red varieties have very little iron and are translucent. The darker more opaque varieties contain more iron. Some specimens are also fluorescent in ultraviolet light. The refractive index of sphalerite (as measured via sodium light, 589.3 nm) is 2.37. Sphalerite crystallizes in the isometric crystal system and possesses perfect dodecahedral cleavage. Gemmy, pale specimens from Franklin, New Jersey (see Franklin Furnace) are highly fluorescent orange and/or blue under longwave ultraviolet light and are known as cleiophane, an almost pure ZnS variety.
Crystals of suitable size and transparency have been fashioned into gemstones, usually featuring the brilliant cut to best display sphalerite's high dispersion of 0.156 (B-G interval)姊爒er three times that of diamond. Freshly cut gems are lively with an adamantine luster and could conceivably be mistaken for a fancy-colored diamond in passing, but due to sphalerite's softness and fragility the gems are best left unset as collector's or museum pieces (although some have been set into pendants). Collectors may pay a premium for stones over one carat (200 mg), as clean crystals are usually quite small. Gem-quality material is usually a yellowish to honey brown, red to orange, or green; the two most important sources are the Chivera mine, Cananea, Sonora, Mexico; and the Picos de Europa, Cordillera Cantabrica, near Santander on Spain's northern coast.
References
Dana's Manual of Mineralogy ISBN 0-471-03288-3
Webster, R., Read, P. G. (Ed.) (2000). Gems: Their sources, descriptions and identification (5th ed.), p. 386. Butterworth-Heinemann, Great Britain. ISBN 0-7506-1674-1
mindat.org
Minerals.net
Minerals of Franklin, NJ
See also
List of minerals
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sphalerite
The sphalerite structure
Possible relation of Sphalerite to origins of life and precursor chemicals in 'Primordial Soup'
Mineralienatlas:Sphalerit (Geological Wiki)
Categories: Gemstones | Sulfide minerals | Zinc minerals(and so on)

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Armored car (VIP)

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(Redirected from Armored limousine)
For other uses, see Armored car (disambiguation).

Armored Mercedes-Benz W220 of the type used by the President of Germany.

Presidential State Car of the United States. Also known as Cadillac One.
Civilian armored cars are either (in only a few cases) factory produced, such as the Audi A6 and A8, Lincoln Town Car BPS, the Mercedes-Benz S-Class Guard, or (in the majority of cases) retrofitted versions of series cars. A security vehicle is made by replacing the windows with bulletproof glass and inserting layers of armor under the outer skin of the car, a labor-intensive process that takes a few weeks and costs about $100,000 in America. The makers usually leave the external appearance of the car unchanged, in order to not look conspicuous. In most cases materials like Aramid (e.g. Twaron), HMPE (e.g. Dyneema), composites or ballistic stainless steel plates are used, and the increased mass is offset by an enhanced engine and brakes. Composite armor combinations may reduce weight, but tend to increase the cost even further.
Besides the armor itself, many other protective modifications are available: automatic fire extinguishers, run-flat tires, an explosion-resistant fuel tank, remote starting of the car, pressure and temperature control of the tires, a siren or alarm, and an intercom between the exterior and interior of the car. Sometimes the inside can be sealed or over-pressured, using its own air supply, to protect against gas attacks. Civilian armored cars may have obvious armor protection, or they may be totally indistinguishable from an unarmored model. There are also armored variants of smaller cars, such as the VW Golf, to further conceal their function and capabilities.
Armored cars are in common use by people who feel at risk and can afford them, for example politicians, entrepreneurs, ambassadors, or in higher-risk areas including Iraq, Moscow, Washington D.C. or Mexico City. Diplomatic missions and private military contractors typically use armored cars as standard vehicles. As a side benefit, armored cars are typically very safe for their occupants in a car accident.
See also
Non-military armored vehicles
Official state car
International Armoring Corporation
Categories: Car classifications
Hidden categories: Articles lacking sources from September 2008 | All articles lacking sources(and so on)

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Constant-velocity joint

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3D rendering of the internals of a simple CV joint

Simple 6-ball CV joint
Constant-velocity joints (aka homokinetic or CV joints) allow a rotating shaft to transmit power through a variable angle, at constant rotational speed, without an appreciable increase in friction or play. They are mainly used in front wheel drive and all wheel drive cars. However, rear wheel drive cars with independent rear suspensions typically use CV joints at the ends of the rear axle halfshafts. Audi Quattros use them for all four half-axles and on the front-to-rear driveshaft (propeller shaft) as well, for a total of ten CV joints.
Contents
1 Before the CV joint
2 The first CV joints
3 Modern CV joints
4 Fault-finding and diagnosis
5 References
6 See also
//
Before the CV joint
Early front wheel drive systems such as those used on the Citro?n Traction Avant and the front axles of Land Rover and similar four wheel drive vehicles used Hardy-Spicer (universal) joints, where a cross-shaped metal pivot sits between two forked carriers. These are not CV joints as, except for specific configurations, they result in a variation of the transmitted speed. They are simple to make and can be tremendously strong, and are still used to provide a flexible coupling in the propeller shafts, where there is not very much movement. However, they become "notchy" and difficult to turn when operated at extreme angles, and need regular maintenance. They also need more complicated support bearings when used in drive axles, and could only be used in rigid axle designs.
The first CV joints
As front wheel drive systems became more popular, with cars such as the Mini using compact transverse engine layouts, the shortcomings of Hardy-Spicer joints in front axles became more and more apparent. Based on a design by Alfred H. Rzeppa which was filed for patent in 1927[1] (a CV joint, the Tracta joint [2], designed by Pierre Fenaille was filed for patent in 1926 [3]), constant velocity joints solved a lot of these problems. They allowed a smooth transfer of power despite the wide range of angles through which they were bent. Driveshafts using CV joints are self-supporting along their length, and do not need additional supports (although very long shafts such as the right-hand driveshaft on the Citro?n CX or Peugeot 205 have an intermediate bearing that supports the inboard joint).
Modern CV joints
Two different types of CV joint are used on the driveshafts of modern cars. At the "inboard" end, where the shaft only moves up and down with the movement of the suspension, a "Triax" (also known as "Tripod") joint is used. This joint has a three-pointed yoke attached to the shaft, which has barrel-shaped roller bearings on the ends. These fit into a cup with three matching grooves, attached to the differential. Since there is only significant movement in one axis, this simple arrangement works well. These also allow an axial 'plunge' movement of the shaft, so that engine rocking and other effects do not preload the bearings. A typical Tripod joint has up to 50mm of plunge travel, and 26 degrees of angular articulation[4].
At the "outboard" end of the driveshaft a slightly different unit is used. The end of the driveshaft is splined and fits into the outer "joint". It is typically held in place by a circlip. The shaft fits in the center of a large, steel, star-shaped "gear" that nests inside a circular cage. The cage is spherical but with ends open, and it typically has six openings around the perimeter. This cage and gear fit into a grooved cup that has a splined and threaded shaft attached to it. Six large steel balls sit inside the cup grooves and fit into the cage openings, nestled in the grooves of the star gear. The outer shaft on the cup then runs through the wheel bearing and is secured by the axle nut. This joint is extremely flexible and can accommodate the large changes of angle when the front wheels are turned by the steering system; typical Rzeppa joints allow 45-48 degrees of articulation, while some can give 52 degrees.
An alternative is to use a pair of universal joints fitted back to back, which form a Double Cardan Joint. This is a robust type of CV joint and is used where high torque loads and/or high articulation angles are experienced.
These joints are very strong, and are usually highly overspecified for a given application. Maintenance is usually limited to checking that the rubber gaiter (dust/weather boot) that covers them is secure and not split. If the gaiter is damaged, the molybdenum disulfide grease with which the joint is packed will be thrown out. The joint will then pick up dirt, water, and road deicing salt and cause the joint to overheat and wear. The grease can also contaminate the brakes. In worst case, the CV joint may disjoin causing the vehicle to stop moving or lock up, rendering...(and so on)

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Alain de Benoist

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Alain de Benoist (born 11 December 1943) is a French academic, philosopher,[1] a founder of the Nouvelle Droite (English: New Right) and head of the French think tank GRECE. He is little known outside his native France. Benoist bills himself as a critic of liberalism, free markets and egalitarianism.[2]
Contents
1 Biography
2 Core Views
3 Selected Bibliography
3.1 Articles
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
//
Biography
Alain de Benoist was born in Saint-Symphorien and attended the Sorbonne. He has studied law, philosophy, sociology, and the history of religions. He is an admirer of Europe and paganism.
Benoist is the editor of two journals: Nouvelle Ecole ("New School") since 1968 and Krisis since 1988. His writings have appeared in Mankind Quarterly, The Scorpion, Tyr, Chronicles, and various newspapers such as Le Figaro. The New Left journal Telos has also published some of Benoist's work, which led to protests from some scholars on the editorial board. In 1978, he received the Grand Prix de l鎵檚sai from the Acad闁檌e Fran?aise for his book Vu de droite: Anthologie critique des id闁憇 contemporaines (Copernic, 1977). He has published more than 50 books, including On Being a Pagan (Ultra, 2005, ISBN 0-9720292-2-2).
Core Views
Alain de Benoist was previously associated with different right wing persons linked with the Algerian independence war. From being close to fascist French movements at the beginning of his writings in 1970, he moved to attacks on globalisation, unrestricted mass immigration and liberalism as being ultimately fatal to the existence of Europe through their divisiveness and internal faults. His influences include Antonio Gramsci,[3] Ernst J榛眊er, Jean Baudrillard, Helmut Schelsky, Konrad Lorenz, and other intellectuals.[4]
Against the liberal melting-pot of the U.S., Benoist is in favour of separate civilisations and cultures. He opposes Jean-Marie Le Pen, racism and anti-Semitism.[5] He has opposed Arab immigration in France, while supporting ties with Islamic culture.[6] He has also tried to distance himself from Adolf Hitler, Vichy France or Aryan supremacy, in favor of concepts like "ethnopluralism," in which organic, ethnic cultures and nations must live and develop in separation from one another.[7] He also opposes Christianity as inherently intolerant, theocractic and bent on persecution.[8]
Benoist has made pointed criticism of the United States: "Better to wear the helmet of a Red Army soldier," he wrote in 1982, "than to live on a diet of hamburgers in Brooklyn."[9] In 1991, he complained that European supporters of the first Gulf War were "collaborators of the American order."[10]
Benoist argues that heredity is dominant role in forming an intellectual elite. In addition, he says egalitarianism is destructive because it ruins the superior qualities and genetic aristocracy in the human race.[11] Benoist argues that Europe must return to its pre-Christian roots and uses the Indo-European model, such as Nordic, Celtic, Greek and Roman civilisations,[12] as an alternative to communism and capitalism.[13] "We want to substitute faith for law, mythos for logos... will for pure reason, the image for the concept, and home for exile," he once wrote.[14]
Benoist has said he opposed racism and violence, saying he is building "a school of thought, not a political movement."[15] He also said that "an intelligent racism, which has a sense of ethnicity, is less harmful than an intemperate, leveling, assimilating anti-racism," -- and violence-prone extremists used the quote as a slogan.[16] While he has complained that nations like the United States suffer from "homogenization," due to multiracial industrialization, he has also distanced himself from some of Jean-Marie Le-Pen's views on immigration.[17]
Benoist considers himself, however, neither left nor right-wing, and has recently tried to appear less radical: in his preference for Heidegger over his first influence, Nietzsche; his support of multiculturalism rather than disappearance of immigrants' identities (though he does not support immigration itself); his interest in ecology; and a less aggressive view of Christianity. He has said that he hopes to see free-debate and greater popular participation in democracy,[citation needed] although he is also critical of modern democracy.[18]
Benoist also promotes a type of federalism, in which the nation state is surpassed, giving way to regional identities and a common continental one at once. This would be distinct from what he sees as the consumerism and materialism of American society, as well as the bureaucracy and repression of the Soviet Union. This vision looks to a Europe of specific peoples, each with their own cultures and heritages.[19]
His critics, such as Thomas Sheehan, argue that Benoist has developed a novel...(and so on)

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Axial compressor

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An animation of an axial compressor. The static blades are the stators.
Axial compressors are rotating, aerofoil based compressors in which the working fluid principally flows parallel to the axis of rotation. This is in contrast with other rotating compresors such as centrifugal, axi-centrifugal and mixed-flow compressors where the air may enter axially but will have a significant radial component on exit.
Axial flow compressors produce a continuous flow of compressed gas, and have the benefits of high efficiencies and large mass flow capacity, particularly in relation to their cross-section. They do, however, require several rows of aerofoils to achieve large pressure rises making them complex and expensive relative to other designs (e.g. centrifugal compressor).
Axial compressors are widely used in gas turbines, such as jet engines, high speed ship engines, and small scale power stations. They are also used in industrial applications such as large volume air separation plants, blast furnace air, fluid catalytic cracking air, and propane dehydrogenation. Axial compressors, known as superchargers, have also been used to boost the power of automotive reciprocating engines by compressing the intake air, though these are very rare. A good example of an axial supercharger is the aftermarket Latham type built between 1955-65 which were used on hot rods and aircooled Volkwagens at that time, but these didn't catch on.
Contents
1 Description
2 Design
3 Development
4 Axial-flow jet engines
4.1 Spools
4.2 Bleed air, variable stators
4.3 Bypass
4.4 Turbine cooling
5 Design notes
5.1 Energy exchange between rotor and fluid
5.2 Velocity diagrams
5.3 Compressor maps
5.4 Compression stability
6 References
7 External links
//
Description
Axial compressors consist of rotating and stationary components. A shaft drives a central drum, retained by bearings, which has a number of annular aerofoil rows attached. These rotate between a similar number of stationary aerofoil rows attached to a stationary tubular casing. The rows alternate between the rotating aerofoils (rotors) and stationary aerofoils (stators), with the rotors imparting energy into the fluid, and the stators converting the increased rotational kinetic energy into static pressure through diffusion. A pair of rotating and stationary aerofoils is called a stage. The cross-sectional area between rotor drum and casing is reduced in the flow direction to maintain axial velocity as the fluid is compressed.

Diagram of an axial flow compressor
Design
The increase in pressure produced by a single stage is limited by the relative velocity between the rotor and the fluid, and the turning and diffusion capabilities of the aerofoils. A typical stage in a commercial compressor will produce a pressure increase of between 15% and 60% (pressure ratios of 1.15-1.6) at design conditions with a polytropic efficiency in the region of 90-95%. To achieve different pressure ratios, axial compressors are designed with different numbers of stages and rotational speeds.
Higher stage pressure ratios are also possible if the relative velocity between fluid and rotors is supersonic, however this is achieved at the expense of efficiency and operability. Such compressors, with stage pressure ratios of over 2, are only used where minimising the compressor size, weight or complexity is critical, such as in military jets.
The aerofoil profiles are optimised and matched for specific velocities and turning. Although compressors can be run at other conditions with different flows, speeds, or pressure ratios, this can result in an efficiency penalty or even a partial or complete breakdown in flow (known as compressor stall and pressure surge respectively). Thus, a practical limit on the number of stages, and the overall pressure ratio, comes from the interaction of the different stages when required to work away from the design conditions. These 鎼奻f-design conditions can be mitigated to a certain extent by providing some flexibility in the compressor. This is achieved normally through the use of adjustable stators or with valves that can bleed fluid from the main flow between stages (inter-stage bleed).
Modern jet engines use a series of compressors, running at different speeds; to supply air at around 40:1 pressure ratio for combustion with sufficient flexibility for all flight conditions.
Development
Early axial compressors offered poor efficiency, so poor that in the early 1920s a number of papers claimed that a practical jet engine would be impossible to construct. Things changed dramatically after A. A. Griffith published a seminal paper in 1926, noting that the reason for the poor performance was that existing compressors used flat blades and were essentially "flying...(and so on)

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Tivoli Audio

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Tivoli Audio PAL
Tivoli Audio is an American electronics company, mainly making radios and other sound reproduction equipment. The company was started by Tom DeVesto. Tivoli Audio emphasizes a simple and functional design without redundant switches, knobs or lights. Henry Kloss designed several versions, including the PAL. Many types, including the Model One and Model Two, incorporate visual elements similar to Kloss' legendary KLH Model Eight table radio; most prominent is the vernier rotary tuning dial, which allows the user to carefully dial in a station without requiring excessively-steady hands.
Models
Tivoli Audio Model One, monaural radio
Tivoli Audio PAL, portable version of Model One
Tivoli Audio Model Two, stereophonic radio, expandable with a subwoofer
Tivoli Audio Model Three, monaural clock radio, expandable with a subwoofer and an extra speaker for stereo
Tivoli Audio Model DAB, monaural DAB clock radio, expandable with a subwoofer and an extra speaker for stereo
Tivoli Audio Model CD, Compact Disc player
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This United States corporation or company article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
Categories: Audio equipment manufacturers | Technological company stubs | United States company stubs(and so on)

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Drive-in theater

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A Bullitt Ford Mustang replica at the Capri Drive In Theater in Coldwater, Michigan, during a showing of Bullitt at their 40th anniversary in 2004.

Bass Hill Drive-In Cinema, Sydney, Australia
File:Sky Vue.jpg
The Sky-Vue drive-in, est. 1948, in Lamesa, Texas.
A drive-in theater is a form of cinema structure consisting of a large outdoor screen, a projection booth, a concession stand and a large parking area for automobiles. The screen can be as simple as a wall that is painted white, or it can be a complex steel truss structure with a complex finish. Within this enclosed area, customers can view movies from the privacy and comfort of their cars. Some drive-in theater managers added children's playgrounds between the screen and the first row of cars. Others even went as far as adding miniature railroads, merry-go-rounds, and miniature golf courses. Concrete patios for lawn chairs were available at some drive-in theaters, as well as indoor seating for the concession stand.
Originally, a movie's sound was provided by speakers on the screen and later by an individual speaker hung from the window of each car, which would be attached by a wire. This system was superseded by the more economical and less damage-prone method of broadcasting the soundtrack at a low output power on AM or FM Radio to be picked up by a car radio. This method also allows the soundtrack to be picked up in stereo by the audience on an often high fidelity stereo installed in the car instead of monaural through a simple speaker.
Contents
1 History
2 Peak
3 Decline
4 Revival
5 Concession stand
6 Drive-ins in films and paintings
7 Popular names of drive-in theaters
8 Drive-in theater songs
9 Songs mentioning drive-in theaters
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
//
History
The drive-in theater was the creation of Camden, New Jersey, chemical company magnate Richard M. Hollingshead, Jr., whose family owned and operated the R.M. Hollingshead Corporation chemical plant in Camden. In 1932, Hollingshead conducted outdoor theater tests in his driveway at 212 Thomas Avenue in Riverton. After nailing a screen to trees in his backyard, he set a 1928 Kodak projector on the hood of his car and put a radio behind the screen, testing different sound levels with his car windows down and up. Blocks under vehicles in the driveway enabled him to determine the size and spacing of ramps so all automobiles could have a clear view of the screen. Following these experiments, he applied August 6, 1932 for a patent of his invention, and he was given U.S. Patent 1,909,537 on May 16, 1933. That patent was declared invalid 17 years later by the Delaware District Court.
Hollingshead's drive-in opened in New Jersey June 6, 1933 on Admiral Wilson Boulevard at the Airport Circle in Pennsauken, a short distance from Cooper River Park.[1] He advertised his drive-in theater by saying, "The whole family is welcome, regardless of how noisy the children are".[2] It only operated for three years, but during that time the concept caught on in other states. The April 15. 1934, opening of Shankweiler's Auto Park in Orefield, Pennsylvania, was followed by Galveston's Drive-In Short Reel Theater (July 5, 1934), the Pico in Los Angeles (September 9, 1934) and the Weymouth Drive-In Theatre in Weymouth, Massachusetts (May 6, 1936). In 1937, three more opened in Ohio, Massachusetts and Rhode Island, with another 12 during 1938 and 1939 in California, Florida, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, Texas and Virginia. Michigan's first drive-in was the Eastside, which opened May 26, 1938 in Harper Woods near Detroit.
One of the reasons that drive-ins were so popular with families is that it allowed the entire family to go to the movies and not have to hire a babysitter or worry that their children would disrupt the entire audience. This became a modern pastime; now the entire family for a per-person cost, the same as a sit down theater, could come and enjoy a movie in the privacy of their own vehicles, children and all. Before the war, there had been approximately 100 major drive-ins nationwide; the drive-in craze began to build very strongly following the end of the Second World War. Many GIs had traveled the country and seen the new and unusual things it had to offer. The drive-in was no exception. Enterprising businessmen realized that this segment of the population could be tapped and spend some of their earnings to enjoy themselves, a date, or an evening with the family.
Peak
The drive-in's peak popularity came in the late 1950s and early 1960s, particularly in rural areas, with some 4,000 drive-ins spreading across the United States. Among its advantages was the...(and so on)

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Stretch wrap

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Stretch wrap or stretch film is a highly stretchable plastic film that is wrapped around items. The elastic recovery keeps the items tightly bound. In contrast, shrink wrap is applied loosely around an item and shrinks tightly with heat.
It is frequently used to unitize pallet loads but also may be used for bundling smaller items.
Contents
1 Materials
2 Functions
3 Application
4 See also
5 Further reading
//
Materials
The most common stretch wrap material is linear low-density polyethylene or LLDPE, which is produced by copolymerization of ethylene with alpha-olefins, the most common of which are butene, hexene and octene. The use of higher alpha-olefins (hexene or octene) gives rise to enhanced stretch film characteristics, particularly in respect of elongation at break and puncture resistance. Other types of polyethylene and PVC can also be used. Many films have about 500% stretch at break but are only stretched to about 100 300% in use. Once stretched, the elastic recovery is used to keep the load tight.
Other properties such as break strength, cling, clarity, tear resistance, puncture resistance, static discharge, etc. are also important.
Functions

Forklift truck loading stretch wrapped pallet load.
In pallet unitizing, stretch wrap can have several functions:
improved stability of products or packages, forming a unit load
more efficient handling and storage of unit loads
some degree of dust and moisture protection
some degree of tamper resistance and resistance to package pilferage
Application
Stretch wrap can be applied manually with small rolls (perhaps 5 inch wide) of film. Dispensers are also available for larger rolls (perhaps 12 15 inch wide).
Machinery is available to automate the operation. This controls the amount of material used, controls the stretch, and controls the application pattern.
It is important not to apply too much tension or too many layers: the stress can damage the vertical edges of the boxes and significantly reduce stacking strength.
See also
packaging and labeling
shrink wrap
pallet
plastic recycling
Slip Sheet
Further reading
ASTM International D4649 Guide for Selection and Use of Stretch Wrap Films
Brody, A. L., and Marsh, K, S., "Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology", John Wiley & Sons, 1997, ISBN 0-471-06397-5
M.Hindreth, "Maximizing your Stretch Film Operation", 2006, ISTA, Pre Shipment Testing, [1]
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Deicing

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An American Airlines MD-80 aircraft being de-iced at Syracuse Hancock International Airport
De-icing is the process of removing frozen contaminant, snow, ice, slush,from a surface.
Anti-icing is the process of protecting against the formation of frozen contaminant, snow, ice, slush on a surface.
De-icing can be accomplished by mechanical methods (scraping, pushing); through the application of heat; by use of chemicals, known as de-icing fluids, designed to lower the freezing point of water (various salts, alcohols, glycols); or by a combination of these different techniques. De-icing fluids are always applied heated and diluted.
Anti-icing is accomplished by applying a protective layer, using a viscous fluid called anti-ice fluid, over a surface to absorb the contaminate. All anti-ice fluids offer only limited protection, dependent upon frozen contaminant type and precipitation rate. A fluid has failed when it no longer can absorb the contaminant and it essentially becomes a contaminant itself. If it fails it must be washed from the surface using a de-icing fluid.
Contents
1 Aircraft
1.1 Infrared de-icing
2 Roads
3 References
4 See also
//
Aircraft
See also: ice protection system
When there are freezing conditions and precipitation, de-icing an aircraft is crucial. Frozen contaminants cause critical control surfaces to be rough and uneven disrupting smooth air flow and greatly degrading the ability of the wing to generate lift (force) and increasing drag. This situation can cause a crash. If large pieces of ice separate when the aircraft is in motion, they can be ingested in engines or hit propellers and cause catastrophic failure. Frozen contaminants can jam control surfaces, preventing them from moving properly. Because of this potentially severe consequence, de-icing is performed at airports where temperatures are likely to drop below the freezing point.
De-icing techniques are also employed to ensure that engine inlets and various sensors on the outside of the aircraft are clear of ice or snow.
De-icing on the ground is usually done by spraying aircraft with a de-icing fluid such as Propylene glycol, similar to ethylene glycol antifreeze used in some automobile engine coolants. Ethylene Glycol (EG) is still in use for aircraft de-icing in some parts of the world because it has a lower operational use temperature (LOUT) than PG and is more versatile in application, but Propylene Glycol (PG) is more common because it is classified as non-toxic, unlike Ethylene Glycol. Nevertheless, it still must be used with a containment system to capture the used liquid, so that it cannot seep into the ground and streams. Even though classified as non-toxic, it has negative effects in nature, as it uses oxygen during breakdown, causing life to suffocate. (In one case, a significant snow in Atlanta in early January 2002 caused an overflow of such a system, briefly contaminating the Flint River downstream of the Atlanta airport.) Many airports recycle used de-icing fluid, separating water and solid contaminants, enabling reuse of the fluid in other applications.
There are several formulations of de-icing fluid, falling into two basic categories: Heated glycol diluted with water for de-icing and snow/frost removal, also referred to as "Newtonian fluids", and unheated, undiluted glycol that has been thickened (imagine half-set gelatin), also referred to as "Non-Newtonian fluids", applied to retard the future development of ice or to prevent falling snow or sleet from accumulating. In some cases both types of fluid are applied, first the heated glycol/water mixture to remove contaminants, followed by the unheated thickened fluid to keep ice from reforming before the aircraft takes off. This is called "a two-step procedure".
Inflight ice buildups are most frequent on the leading edges of the wings, tail and engines (including the propellers or fan blades). Lower speed aircraft frequently use pneumatic boots on the leading edges of wings and tail for inflight de-icing. The rubber coverings are periodically inflated, causing ice to crack and flake off. Once the system is activated by the pilot, the inflation/deflation cycle is automatically controlled. In the past, it was thought such systems can be defeated if they are inflated prematurely; that the pilot must allow a fairly thick layer of ice to form before inflating the boots. Recent research shows 鎻祌idging does not occur with modern boots.[1]

B-17 bomber. The black strips on the leading edges of the tail, stabilizers and wing are de-icer boots made of rubber.
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Dzi bead

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Dzi bead
Dzi bead with the two eyes design
Chinese:
??
HanyuPinyin:
tian1 zhu1
Literal meaning:
heaven pearl
Transliterations
Mandarin
- HanyuPinyin:
tian1 zhu1
Cantonese
- Jyutping:
tin1 zyu1
Dzi bead (pronounced "zee") is a bead stone of mysterious origin worn as part of a necklace and sometimes as a bracelet. In several Asian cultures, including that of Tibet, the bead is considered to provide positive spiritual benefit. These beads are generally prized as protective amulets and are sometimes ground up into a powder to be used in traditional Tibetan medicine. Beads subject to this process have small "dig marks" where a portion of the bead has been scraped or shaved away to be ground into the medicine.
Beads that are broken are believed to have a diluted benefit, because they have taken the brunt of the force that it is assumed would have otherwise impacted the wearer.
The most highly prized dzi beads are made of natural agate. Others were apparently manufactured in ancient times. There are also modern imitations made for decorative purposes.
Contents
1 Names
2 Design
3 Origin
4 Supply and demand
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
//
Names
The meaning of the word "dzi" translates to "shine, brightness, clearness, splendor". In Traditional Chinese, the bead is called "heaven's bead" or "heaven's pearl" (??).
Design
Dzi stones are made from agate, and may have decorated symbols composed of circles, ovals, square, waves (zig zags), stripes, lines, diamonds, circles, squares, waves, and stripes and various other natural archetypal symbolic patterns. Colors will mainly range from browns to blacks with the pattern usually being in ivory white. Dzi beads can appear in different colours, shapes and sizes.
The number of "eyes" on the stone is considered significant. "Eyes" are the circular dot or eye-like designs, and depending on their number and arrangement, they represent different things.
Sometimes the natural patterns (usually "layered" swirls) of the agate can be seen underneath or behind the decorated symbols and designs, and sometimes not. Some dzi beads sport what are referred to as "blood spots" which can be seen as red dots in the white areas, and these are indicative of cinnabar content. This is highly desirable, but more rare. Another desirable effect is something called "N?ga skin" or "dragon skin," which refers to the cracking patterns on the surface of the bead, that simulates scales.
The word "waxy" is often used to describe dzi bead surface, which is the smoothing which occurs over a long period of time (presumably from wear), giving the bead a waxy appearance. Some dzi beads are simply polished agate and sport only the agate's natural patterning as decoration.
There are beads referred to as "chung dzi" or simply "chung beads" which are often highly polished agate designs, can be any variety of colors, may include hand carved designs, or they look very similar to a dzi bead but because of their depictions (for example, the shape of Quan Yin) are not true dzi. Chung dzis include such designs as yin-yang symbols, dragons, and other "newer" designs that were not around during the time true dzi beads were supposedly created. Chung dzi are believed to embody similar properties as dzi but should not be confused with true dzi beads (they often cost much less than true dzi).
Origin
Dzi stones may have made their first appearance between 2000 BC to 1000 BC, in ancient Tibet: a few thousand were brought back by Tibetan soldiers from Persia. Dzis were crafted using agate as the base stone and then fabricated with lines and circles using unique ancient methods and techniques by Persian craftsmen. Scientific bead makers can now manufacture apparent dzi stones in bulk, but the techniques and methods used by ancient craftsmen still are not completely understood.[1]. Fear of the 鎻簐il eye was taken very seriously by these people, so they created talismans with 鎻簓es on them as a 鎻籭ght fire with fire form of protection.
While the origin surrounding dzi beads is quite uncertain, it is socially accepted today that they are called "Tibetan beads". They are found primarily in Tibet, but also in neighbouring Bhutan, Ladakh and Sikkim. Shepherds and farmers pick them up in the grasslands or while cultivating fields. Because dzi are found in the earth, Tibetans cannot conceive of them as man-made. One reason the beads may be found near the surface in places such as freshly tilled fields, for example, may be because ancient monks were burned in funeral pyres (wearing the beads), and long after the remains were gone, the beads therefore remained, and were found at later dates. Since knowledge of the bead is derived from oral traditions, the beads have provoked...(and so on)

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