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Early history
The first light guns appeared in the 1930s, following the development of light-sensing vacuum tubes. It was not long before the technology began appearing in arcade shooting games, beginning with the Seeburg Ray-O-Lite in 1936. These early light gun games, like modern laser tag, used small targets (usually moving) onto which a light-sensing tube was mounted; the player used a gun (usually a rifle) that emitted a beam of light when the trigger was pulled. If the beam struck the target, a "hit" was scored.
Use in video games fetal doppler
Duck Hunt, one of the most well-known light gun games heartbeat monitor
The video game light gun is typically modeled on a ballistic weapon (usually a pistol) and is used for targeting objects on a video screen. With force feedback, the light gun can also simulate the recoil of the weapon. test glucose meter
Light guns are very popular in arcade games, but had not caught on as well in the home video game console market until after the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), Sega Master System (SMS), Mega Drive/Genesis, and Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) systems. Nevertheless, many home 'Pong' systems of the 70s included a pistol or gun for shooting simple targets on screen.
Traditional light guns cannot be used on the newer LCD and plasma screens, and have problems with projection screens.
The following are famous example of light guns:
Magnavox Odyssey Shooting Gallery the first gun for a home console was in fact a big rifle, which looked very lifelike and even needed to be "cocked" after each shot
Nintendo's NES Zapper for the NES, arguably the most popular example of the light gun
XG-1 for Atari XE-GS
Action Max, a console that used VHS tapes for games, solely controlled by a light gun
Light Phaser for Sega Master System
Super Scope for Super Nintendo, shaped like a bazooka
Menacer for Sega Mega Drive
Peacekeeper Revolver for Philips CDi
Sega Lock-On, a stand-alone laser tag system
Namco's GunCon and GunCon 2, first to read the video signal in the accessory (rather than internally in the console) and said to be highly accurate; used for PlayStation and PlayStation 2
Dreamcast light guns for Dreamcast
The XT-7 from Captain Power, an interactive television show
Magnum Light Phaser For Spectrum / Commodore 64
The Wii Zapper for the Wii console is designed to house the Wii Remote and Nunchuk, giving a light gun feel (although the Wii Remote itself does not use traditional light gun technology).
There are also light guns for Sega Saturn, Xbox and several other console and arcade systems. Recent light gun video games include Resident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles, Time Crisis 4, Virtua Cop 3, and The House of the Dead: Overkill.
The Wii Remote can be seen as a successor to this technology, and it can be used relatively accurately with CRT, LCD, plasma, and projection screens. Like the NES Zapper, it is "bundled" with the system, but unlike traditional light guns, the Wii Remote serves as a primary controller. If coupled with the Nunchuk attachment, the Wii Remote allows for a potentially seamless union between first-person shooter gameplay and "light gun" implementation. Namco's GunCon 3 also uses a system similar to the Wii Remote, using 2 infrared LEDs and sensors in the gun, as opposed to the traditional light guns.
Design
The "light gun" is named because it uses light as its method of detecting where on screen the user is targeting. The name leads one to believe that the gun itself emits a beam of light, but in fact most light guns actually receive light through a photodiode in the gun barrel.
There are two versions of this technique that are commonly used, but the concept is the same: when the trigger of the gun is pulled, the screen is blanked out to black, and the diode begins reception. All or part of the screen is painted white in a way that allows the computer to judge where the gun is pointing, based on when the diode detects light. The user of the light gun notices little or nothing, because the period in which the screen is blank is usually only a fraction of a second (see persistence of vision).
Sequential targets
The first detection method, used by the Zapper, involves drawing each target sequentially in white light after the screen blacks out. The computer knows that if the diode detects light as it is drawing a square (or after the screen refreshes) then, that is the target at which the gun is pointed. Essentially, the diode tells the computer whether or not you hit something, and for n objects, the sequence of the drawing of the targets tell the computer which target you hit after 1 + ceil(log2(n)) refreshes (one refresh to determine if any target at all was hit and ceil(log2(n)) to do a binary search for the object that was hit).
An interesting side effect of this is that on poorly designed games, often a player can point the gun at a light bulb, pull the trigger and hit the first target every time. Better games account for this either by detecting if all targets appear to match or by displaying a black screen and verifying that no targets match.
Cathode ray timing
The GunCon (gray; top) and the GunCon 2 (orange; bottom) for the PlayStation and PlayStation 2, respectively
The blue (top) and pink (middle) Konami Justifiers made for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System and the green (bottom) one made for the PlayStation
The second method, used by the Super Nintendo Entertainment System's Super Scope and computer light pens, is more elaborate and more accurate.
The trick to this method lies in the nature of the cathode ray tube inside the video monitor (CRTs were the only affordable TV monitors in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when this method was popularized). The screen is drawn by a scanning electron beam that travels across the screen starting at the top until it hits the end, and then moves down to update the next line. This is done repeatedly until the entire screen is drawn, and appears instantaneous to the human eye as it is done very quickly.
When the player pulls the trigger, the computer (often assisted by the display circuitry) times how long it takes the electron beam to excite the phosphor at the location at which the gun is pointed. The light gun sends a signal after sensing the sudden small change in brightness of a point on the screen when the electron gun refreshes that spot. The computer then calculates the targeted position based on the monitor's horizontal refresh rate (the fixed amount of time it takes the beam to get from the left to right side of the screen). Either the computer provides a time base for the horizontal refresh rate through the controller's connector (as in the Super Scope), or the gun reads the composite video signal through a T-connector on the A/V cable (as in the GunCon 2). Once the computer knows where the gun is pointed, it can tell through collision detection if it coincides with the target or not.
Many guns of this type (including the Super Scope) ignore red light, as red phosphors have a much slower rate of decay than green or blue phosphors. As a result, some (but not all) games brighten the entire screen somewhat when the trigger is pulled in order to get a more reliable fix on the position.
Display timing is useless with plasma, LCD, and DLP, which refresh all pixels at the same time.
Combined method
Some light guns designed for sequential targeting are not timed precisely enough to get an (X, Y) reading against the video signal, but they can use a combination of the two methods. First the screen is brightened and the response time is measured as in cathode ray timing, but the computer measures only which scanline was hit and not which horizontal pixel was hit. This does not need nearly as fast a timer that pure cathode ray timing uses, on the order of 15 kHz for Y vs. 5 MHz for (X, Y) on a standard resolution display. Then using sequential targets, the game cycles among those targets on the line.
Infrared emitters
A new method was developed to compensate for display technologies other than CRT. It relies on one or several infrared light emitters placed near the screen, and one IR sensor on the muzzle of the gun. When the trigger is pressed, the gun sends the intensity of the IR beam it detects. Since this intensity depends upon both distance and relative angle to the screen, angle sensors are located in the gun. This way a trigonometric equation system is solved, and the muzzle's 3D position relative to the screen is calculated. Then, by projecting the muzzle on the screen with the measured angles the impact point is determined. An early example of this technology (though not using IR) can be seen in the NES Power Glove Accessory, which used three ultrasonic sensors serving the same function as the IR emitters used in some lightguns.
A simpler variant is commonly used in arcades, where there are no angle detectors but 4 IR sensors. However, this can prove inaccurate when shooting from certain distances and angles, since the calculation of angles and 3D position has a larger margin of error.
Other variants include 3 or more emitters with different infrared wavelengths and the same number of sensors. With this method and proper calibration three or more relative angles are obtained, thus not needing angle detectors to position the gun.
Sometimes, the sensors are placed around the screen and the emitter on the gun, but calculations are similar.
The Wii Remote uses an infrared video camera in the handheld controller, rather than a simple sensor.
This family of methods are used for the Wii Remote, GunCon 3, and modern arcade light gun games.
Image capture
When the user pulls the trigger the screen is replaced for a split-second with a seemingly random display of black and white pixels, or groups of pixels (blocks). The light gun contains a fine-resolution but low pixel count digital camera with a very narrow field of view. With just a handful of the encrypted random dot image pixels captured, the gun converts the small image into a binary array which allows the computer to locate the exact position the gun was pointed at and is compatible with any screen of any size. The size of the screen and distance to shooter is entered into the gun driver software to determine the dimensions of the random blocks/pixels to best allow rendering on the light gun CCD.
Multiplayer
A game that uses more than one gun reads both triggers continuously and then, when one player pulls a gun's trigger, the game reads that gun until it knows which object was hit.
Positional guns
Positional guns are fairly common in video arcades. A positional gun is a gun mounted to the cabinet on a swivel that allows the player to aim the gun. These are often confused with light guns but work quite differently. These guns may not be removed from the cabinet like the optical counterparts, which are tethered and stored in a mounted holster. They are typically more expensive initially but easier to maintain and repair. Games that use positional guns include Operation Wolf, Silent Scope, the arcade version of Resident Evil: Survivor, Space Gun, Revolution X and Terminator 2: Judgment Day. The console ports used light guns.
A positional gun is effectively an analog stick that records the position of the gun to determine where the player is aiming. The gun must be calibrated, which usually happens after powering up. Some games have mounted optical guns, such as Exidy's Crossbow.
Known Light Guns
The following is a list of the guns that have been made in the history of gaming:
Title - Company/Game System Name - Release Date
Shooting Gallery (game accessory) - Magnavox Odyssey - 1972
Wonder Wizard - GHP (company) - 1976
ColorSport VIII - Granada (company) - 1976
GD-1380 - Heathkit - 1976
TV-Sports 801 - Lloyds - 1976
Sportsman, Tournament 150, 200, 2000, 2501 - Unisonic - 1976/1976/1977/1977
Telstar Ranger, Telstar Arcade, Telstar Marksman - Coleco - 1977/1977/1978
TV Fun Sportsrama - APF Electronics - 1977
Visio Matic 101 - CIT Alcatel - 1977
Model 1199 - Interstate (company) - 1977
Markint 6 - Markint - 1977
N20 (light gun) - Philips - 1977
Visiomat 11 - Pizon-Bross - 1977
TV Scoreboard - Radio Shack - 1977
Home T.V. Game - Santron - 1977
TV Game - Sennheiser - 1977
105 - Sportron - 1977
501 - Starex - 1977
Mark V-C - Unimex - 1977
XK 600B - Ingersoll (company) - 1978
Jeu TV TVG-6 - Klevox - 1978
OC 5000 Occitane - (SOE)- 1978
Videosport - Printztronic - 1978
Color TV Game - Sands 1978
Telescore - SEB (company) - 1978
Sports Centre, Colour TV Game 3600 MK III - Granada (company) - 1979
Color Multi-Spiel - Universum - 1979
NES Zapper - Nintendo - 1984
Light Phaser - Sega - 1986
Laserscope - Konami - 1990
Super Scope - Nintendo - 1992
Menacer - Sega - 1994
GunCon - Namco - 1997
GunCon 2 - Namco - 2001
Topgun (light gun) - EMS (company) - 2005
Topgun II - EMS (company) - 2007
Wii Zapper - Nintendo - 2007
GunCon 3 - Namco - 2007
Nerf N-Strike - Nerf - 2008
See also
Light gun shooter
List of light gun games
References
^
^ Reload: How The Time Crisis 4 Light Gun Works
Categories: Light gunsHidden categories: Articles needing additional references from July 2006 | All articles needing additional references
Monday, May 3, 2010
Light gun
NZR JB class
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Conversion to oil burning
After World War II the railways suffered problematic coal shortages, especially in the North Island. Approval was gained to convert 12 of the J class locomotives into oil-burners, to burn heavy fuel oil which was available in plentiful quantities at the time. The conversion saw the installation of a two-nossle burner in the firebox, removal of the grate and ashpan which was replaced with a firepan lined with bricks, shortening of the superheater tubes in the boiler, removal of the spark arrester in the smokebox, removal of the brick arch, addition of the related controls and gauges for the oil burning equipment, and the tender modified to carry an oil bunker and associated steam piping. Similar to the K and KA Classes which were converted to oil burning at the same time, the JB Class utilized a separate, removable tank which sat in the former coal space. However, the full-width coal bunker of the J-type's Vanderbilt tender was cut down so that the oil tank was visible at the sides, with distinctive vertical supports below. The conversion process generally coincided with the removal of the streamlining, but not always. Once converted, the locomotives were re-classified JB in recognition of the conversion, however they retained their original J class numbers.
The JB Class in service laminator pouch
In service the JB class performed well, but did not distinguish themselves above the unconverted J class nor any of the other J variants. Some of the JB Class received cross-compound Westinghouse pumps in place of the twin single-phase pumps, but others did not. The JB Class only ever saw service in the North Island, as in the South Island coal supplies were plentiful. Some years after conversion to oil, the fuel oil being used became considerably dearer than the coal supplies then being sourced, and there was no longer a coal shortage. However re-conversion back to coal burning did not occur due to objections from the various railway Unions. laminating pouches
Withdrawal and disposal candy wrapper
Some members of the JB Class were among the first of the J 4-8-2 types to be withdrawn, due to the faster wear and tear suffered by the locomotives as a result of oil burning. The last of the class was withdrawn from service by March 1968, by which time steam haulage in the North Island had essentially finished anyway . All of the class were scrapped, although many items from the locomotives were retained as spares for the other J type locomotives still in service in the South Island.
Preservation
None of the JB Class were Preserved. However, the tender from JB 1203 is held by Steam Incorporated. In addition, preserved J class locomotive No.1236 has been restored as a JB class oil burner by its owners Mainline Steam, although this particular locomotive spent its entire NZR career as a coal-burning J Class . Preserved locomotive J 1211, also owned by Mainline Steam, has been converted to oil burning in the same manner as the JB Class, but has not been re-classified to reflect that change.
References
^ Register of New Zealand Steam Locomotives, W.G. Lloyd
^ The Locomotives of the Mainline Steam Trust, by Graeme Moffatt
External links
NZR Steam locomotives - J class (4-8-2)
NZR Steam locomotives - J class (4-8-2)
v d e
Rail vehicles of New Zealand
Battery electric locomotives
E - EB
Diesel locomotives
DA (inc. DAA, DAR) - DB (inc. DBR) - DC (inc. DCP) - DE - DF (English Electric) - DF (General Motors) inc. DFT - DG (inc. DH of 1956) - DH of 1978 - DI - DJ - DK - DQ (inc. QR) - DS - DSA - DSB - DSC - DSG - DSJ - DX (inc. DXB, DXC, DXH, DXR) - TR
Diesel Multiple Units
ADK (inc. ADB trailers) - ADL (inc. ADC trailers)
Electric locomotives
EA (later EO of 1968) - EC - ED - EF - EO of 1923 - EW
Electric Multiple Units
DM (inc. D trailers) - EM (inc. ET trailers) - MEM (inc. MET trailers)
Railcars
RM class railcars: 88 seater (also known as Fiats or twinsets) - Clayton steam railcar - Edison battery-electric railcar - Leyland diesel railbus - Leyland experimental petrol railcar - MacEwan-Pratt petrol railcar - Model T Ford railcar - Sentinel-Cammell steam railcar - Silver Fern - Standard - Thomas Transmission - Vulcan - Wairarapa - Westinghouse
Non-RM class railcar: A 88 Buckhurst petrol carriage
Steam locomotives
A of 1873 - A of 1906 (inc. Ad) - AA - AB - B of 1874 - B of 1899 - BA - BB - BC - C of 1873 - C of 1930 - D of 1874 - D of 1929 - E of 1872-75 - E of 1906 - F - FA (inc. FB) - G of 1874 - G Garratt of 1928 (inc. Pacific rebuild) - H - J of 1874 - J of 1939 - JA - JB - K of 1877 - K of 1932 - KA - KB - L - LA - M - N - NA - NC - O - OA - OB - OC - P of 1876 - P of 1885 - Q of 1878 - Q of 1901 - R - S - T - U - UA - UB - UC - UD - V - W - WA - WAB (inc. WS) - WB - WD - WE - WF - WG - WH - WJ - WW - X - Y
Loco-hauled carriages
50-foot carriage - 56-foot carriage - ex-British Rail Mark 2 carriage
See also: Locomotives of New Zealand; Motive power explanation; Multiple units and Railcars descriptions.
Categories: Locomotives of New Zealand | 4-8-2 locomotives | NBL locomotivesHidden categories: Articles needing additional references from December 2008 | All articles needing additional references | Unusual parameters of Infobox locomotive template
Environmental issues with paper
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Issues
See also: Paper pollution
Deforestation laminator pouch
Main article: Deforestation laminating pouches
Worldwide consumption of paper has risen by 400 percent in the past 40 years with 35 percent of harvested trees being used for paper manufacture. Logging of old growth forests accounts for less than 10% of wood pulp, but is one of the most controversial issues. Plantation forest, from where the majority of wood for pulping is obtained, is generally a monoculture and this raises concerns over the ecological effects of the practice. candy wrapper
Deforestation is often seen as a problem in developing countries but also occurs in the developed world. Woodchipping to produce paper pulp is a contentious environmental issue in Australia. In the 1990s the New Zealand government stopped the export of woodchips for native forests after campaigning by environmentalists.
Air pollution
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) sulfur dioxide (SO2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are all emitted during paper manufacturing. They all cause acid rain and CO2 is a major greenhouse gas responsible for climate change. However, since wood waste is burnt by pulp and paper mills some of the CO2 is from renewable sources and may be sequestered make into plantation forests.
Water pollution
Waste water discharges for a pulp and paper mill contains solids, nutrients and dissolved organic matter, and unless at low levels these are classed as pollutants. Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus can cause or exacerbate eutrophication of fresh water bodies such as lakes and rivers. Organic matter dissolved in fresh water, measured by Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), changes ecological characteristics, and in worse case scenarios leads to death of all higher living organisms. Waste water may also be polluted with organochlorine compounds. Some of these are naturally occurring in the wood, but chlorine bleaching of the pulp produces far larger amounts.
Discharges can also discolour the water leading to reduced aesthetics. This has happened with the Tarawera River in New Zealand which subsequently became known as the "black drain".
Wood pulping process
See also: Bleaching of wood pulp
Bleaching mechanical pulp is not a major cause for environmental concern since most of the organic material is retained in the pulp, and the chemicals used (hydrogen peroxide and sodium dithionite) produce benign byproducts (water and sodium sulfate (finally), respectively).
Delignification of chemical pulps releases considerable amounts of organic material into the environment, particularly into rivers or lakes. Pulp mills are almost always located near large bodies of water because of they require substantial quantites of water for their processes.
Bleaching with chlorine produced large amounts of organochlorine compounds, including dioxins. Increased public awareness of environmental issues, as evidenced by the formation of organizations like Greenpeace, influenced the pulping industry and governments to address the release of these materials into the environment . The amount of dioxin has been reduced by replacing some or all of the chlorine with chlorine dioxide. The use of elemental chlorine has declined significantly and as of 2005 was used to bleach 1920% of all kraft pulp. ECF (elemental chlorine-free) pulping using chlorine dioxide is now the dominant technology worldwide (with the exception of Finland and Sweden), accounting for 75% of bleached kraft pulp globally.
The promise of complete removal of chlorine chemistry from bleaching processes to give a TCF (totally chlorine-free) process, which peaked in the mid-1990s, did not become reality. The economic disadvantages of TCF, the lack of stricter government regulation and consumer demand meant that EFC has not been replaced by TCF. As of 2005 only 56% of bleached kraft is made using TCF sequences, mainly in Finland and Sweden. This pulp and paper goes to the German market, where regulations and consumer demand for TCF pulp and paper makes it viable.
A study based on EPA data demonstrated that TCF processes reduce the amount of chlorinated material released into the environment, relative to ECF bleaching processes which do not use oxygen delignification. The same study concluded that "Studies of effluents from mills that use oxygen delignification and extended delignification to produce ECF and TCF pulps suggest that the environmental effects of these processes are low and similar." The energy needed to produce the bleaching chemicals for an ECF process not using oxygen delignification is about twice that needed for ECF with oxygen delignification or ECF processes.
Non-renewable resources
Clay or calcium carbonate are used as fillers for some papers. Kaolin is the most commonly used clay for coated papers.
Mitigation
Waste paper awaiting recycling in the Netherlands.
Some of the effect of the pulp and paper industry can be addressed and there is some change towards sustainable practices. The use of wood solely from plantation forests address concerns about loss of old growth forests.
Bleaching
The move to non-elemental chlorine for the bleaching process reduced the emission of the carcinogenic organochlorines. Peracetic acid, ozone and hydrogen peroxide and oxygen are used in bleaching sequences in the pulp industry to produce totally chlorine free (TCF) paper.
Recycling
Main article: Paper recycling
There are three categories of paper that can be used as feedstocks for making recycled paper: mill broke, pre-consumer waste, and post-consumer waste. Mill broke is paper trimmings and other paper scrap from the manufacture of paper, and is recycled internally in a paper mill. Pre-consumer waste is material that was discarded before it was ready for consumer use. Post-consumer waste is material discarded after consumer use such as old magazines, old telephone directories, and residential mixed paper.
One concern about recycling wood pulp paper is that the fibers are degraded with each and after being recycled four or five times the fibers become too short and weak to be useful in making paper.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency has found that recycling causes 35% less water pollution and 74% less air pollution than making virgin paper. Pulp mills can be sources of both air and water pollution, especially if they are producing bleached pulp. Modern mills produce considerably less pollution than those of a few decades ago. Recycling paper decreases the demand for virgin pulp and thus reduces the overall amount of air and water pollution associated with paper manufacture. Recycled pulp can be bleached with the same chemicals used to bleach virgin pulp, but hydrogen peroxide and sodium hydrosulfite are the most common bleaching agents. Recycled pulp, or paper made from it, is known as PCF (process chlorine free) if no chlorine-containing compounds were used in the recycling process.
Inks
Three main issues with the environmental impact of printing inks is the use of volatile organic compounds, heavy metals and non-renewable oils. Standards for the amount of heavy metals in ink have been set by some regulatory bodies. There is a trend toward using vegetable oils rather than petroleum oils in recent years due to a demand for better sustainability.
Deinking recycled paper pulp results in a waste slurry which may go to landfill. De-inking at Cross Pointe's Miami, Ohio mill in the United States results in sludge weighing 22% of the weight of wastepaper recycled.
In the 1970s federal regulations for inks in the United States governed the use of toxic metals such as lead, arsenic, selenium, mercury, cadmium and hexavalent chromium.
See also
Totally chlorine free paper
Elemental chlorine free paper
List of environmental issues
Printing and the environment
References
^ Martin, Sam (2004). "Paper Chase". Ecology Communications, Inc.. http://www.ecology.com/feature-stories/paper-chase/index.html. Retrieved 2007-09-21.
^ Open Mind Research Group on behalf of their client Environment Victoria (1994-12-4). "Woodchipping to Japan - Joint Environment Group Commissioned Public Opinion". Forest Fact File. "Newspoll - December 1994 - To the Question "Next a question about native forests. Do you personally approve or disapprove of trees from Australian's native forests being fell and exported as woodchips to Japan? 80.3% of Australians disapproved, 11.7% approved, 8.0% undecided."
^ Woodchipping in New Zealand
^ a b "Effluents from Pulp Mills using Bleaching - PSL1". ISBN 0-662-18734-2 DSS. Health Canada. 1991. http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/pubs/contaminants/psl1-lsp1/pulp_mill_effluents_pate_blanchie/index_e.html. Retrieved 2007-09-21.
^ Sonnenfeld, David A. (1999). "Social Movements and Ecological Modernization: The Transformation of Pulp and Paper Manufacturing, Paper: WP00-6-Sonnenfeld". Berkeley Workshop on Environmental Politics. Berkeley,CA: Institute of International Studies (University of California, Berkeley). http://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=iis. Retrieved 2007-09-20.
^ "ECF: The Sustainable Technology" (PDF). Alliance for Environmental Technology. http://www.aet.org/epp/ecf_brochure.pdf. Retrieved 2007-09-19.
^ a b c d "Frequently Asked Questions on Kraft Pulp Mills" (PDF). Ensis/CSIRO (Australia) joint research . 2005-03-04. http://www.gunnspulpmill.com.au/factsheets/BleachingByCSIRO.pdf. Retrieved 2007-09-21.
^ "TCF and ECF: Separating Fact From Fiction". The Alliance for Environmental Technology. September 1994. http://aet.org/reports/technical/fact.html. Retrieved 2007-09-21.
^ a b "ENVIRONMENTAL COMPARISON OF BLEACHED KRAFT PULP MANUFACTURING" (PDF). Environmental Defense Fund . December 1995. http://www.environmentaldefense.org/documents/1626_WP5.pdf. Retrieved 2007-11-18.
^ "Ozone and Color Removal". Ozone Information. http://www.ozonesolutions.com/Ozone_Color_Removal.html. Retrieved 2009-01-09.
^ "Debunking the Myths of Recycled Paper". Recycling Point Dot Com. http://recyclingpoint.com.sg/Articles/feb1992myth_of_recycledpaper.htm. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
^ "Recycling glossary". American Forest and Paper Association. http://www.afandpa.org/Content/NavigationMenu/Environment_and_Recycling/Recycling/Recycling_Resources/Recycling_Glossary.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-20.
^ "Paper Recycling Information Sheet". Waste Online. http://www.wasteonline.org.uk/resources/InformationSheets/paper.htm. Retrieved October 20, 2007.
^ "Recycle on the Go: Basic Information". US Environmental Protection Agency. October 18, 2007. http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/osw/conserve/onthego/info/index.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-30.
^ MacFadden, Todd; Michael P. Vogel (June 1996). "Facts About Paper". Printers' National Environmental Assistance Center, Montana State University. http://www.pneac.org/sheets/all/paper.cfm. Retrieved 2007-10-30.
^ http://www.cpima.org/HeavyMetals.pdf
^ "Recycling Paper and Glass". US Department of Energy. September 2006. http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/saving/recycling/solidwaste/paperandglass.html. Retrieved 2007-10-30.
^ National Association of Printing Ink Manufacturers
External links
paperonline (Confederation of European Paper Industries) - Environmental issues page
Categories: Environmental issues with paper
Ethanol fuel in Brazil
China Product
History
Main articles: History of ethanol fuel in Brazil, Common ethanol fuel mixtures, and Flexible-fuel vehicle
Historical evolution of ethanol blends used in Brazil laminator pouch
(1976-2010) laminating pouches
Year candy wrapper
Ethanol
blend
Year
Ethanol
blend
Year
Ethanol
blend
1931
E5
1989
E18-22-13
2004
E20
1976
E11
1992
E13
2005
E22
1977
E10
1993-98
E22
2006
E20
1978
E18-20-23
1999
E24
2007
E23-25
1981
E20-12-20
2000
E20
2008
E25
1982
E15
2001
E22
2009
E25
1984-86
E20
2002
E24-25
2010
E20-25
1987-88
E22
2003
E20-25
Source: J.A. Puerto Rica (2007), Table 3.8, pp. 81-82
Note: The 2010 reduction from E25 to E20 is temporary and valid for 90 days
beginning Feruary 1st.
Sugarcane has been cultivated in Brazil since 1532 as sugar was one of the first commodities exported to Europe by the Portuguese settlers. The first use of sugarcane ethanol as a fuel in Brazil dates back to the late twenties and early thirties of the twentieth century, with the introduction of the automobile in the country. Ethanol fuel production peaked during World War II and, as German submarine attacks threatened oil supplies, the mandatory blend became as high as 50% in 1943.
After the end of the war cheap oil caused gasoline to prevail, and ethanol blends were only used sporadically, mostly to take advantage of sugar surpluses, until the seventies, when the first oil crisis resulted in gasoline shortages and awareness of the dangers of oil dependence. As a response to this crisis, the Brazilian government began promoting bioethanol as a fuel. The National Alcohol Program -Pr-lcool- (Portuguese: 'Programa Nacional do lcool'), launched in 1975, was a nation-wide program financed by the government to phase out automobile fuels derived from fossil fuels, such as gasoline, in favor of ethanol produced from sugar cane.
The 1979 Brazilian Fiat 147 was the first modern automobile launched to the market capable of running only on hydrous ethanol fuel (E100).
The first phase of the program concentrated on production of anhydrous ethanol for blending with gasoline. The Brazilian government made mandatory the blending of ethanol fuel with gasoline, fluctuating from 1976 until 1992 between 10% to 22%. Due to this mandatory minimum gasoline blend, pure gasoline (E0) is no longer sold in the country. A federal law was passed in October 1993 establishing a mandatory blend of 22% anhydrous ethanol (E22) in the entire country. This law also authorized the Executive to set different percentages of ethanol within pre-established boundaries; and since 2003 these limits were fixed at a maximum of 25% (E25) and a minimum of 20% (E20) by volume. Since then, the government has set the percentage of the ethanol blend according to the results of the sugarcane harvest and the levels of ethanol production from sugarcane, resulting in blend variations even within the same year.
Historical trend of Brazilian total production of light vehicles, neat ethanol (alcohol), flex fuel, and gasoline vehicles from 1979 to 2009.
Since July 2007 the mandatory blend is 25% of anhydrous ethanol and 75% gasoline or E25 blend. However, in 2010, and as a result of supply concerns and high ethanol fuel prices, the government mandated a temporary 90-day blend reduction from E25 to E20 beginning February 1st, 2010.
After testing in government fleets with several prototypes developed by the local carmakers, and compelled by the second oil crisis, the Fiat 147, the first modern commercial ethanol-only powered car (E100 only) was launched to the market in July 1979. The Brazilian government provided three important initial drivers for the ethanol industry: guaranteed purchases by the state-owned oil company Petrobras, low-interest loans for agro-industrial ethanol firms, and fixed gasoline and ethanol prices where hydrous ethanol sold for 59% of the government-set gasoline price at the pump. Subsidising ethanol production in this manner and setting an artificially low price established ethanol as an alternative to gasoline.
After reaching more than 4 million cars and light trucks running on pure ethanol by the late 1980s, representing one third of the country's motor vehicle fleet, ethanol production and sales of ethanol-only cars tumbled due to several factors. First, gasoline prices fell sharply as a result of lower gasoline prices, but mainly because of a shortage of ethanol fuel supply in the local market left thousands of vehicles in line at gas stations or out of fuel in their garages by mid 1989. As supply could not keep pace with the increasing demand required by the now significant ethanol-only fleet, the Brazilian government began importing ethanol in 1991.
The 2003 Brazilian VW Gol 1.6 Total Flex was the first flexible-fuel car capable of running on any blend of gasoline and ethanol.
Confidence on ethanol-powered vehicles was restored only with the introduction in the Brazilian market of flexible-fuel vehicles. In March 2003 Volkswagen launched in the Brazilian market the Gol 1.6 Total Flex, the first commercial flexible fuel vehicle capable of running on any blend of gasoline and ethanol. By 2009, popular manufacturers that build flexible fuel vehicles are Chevrolet, Fiat, Ford, Peugeot, Renault, Volkswagen, Honda, Mitsubishi, Toyota, Citren, and Nissan. Flexible fuel cars were 22% of the car sales in 2004, 73% in 2005, 87.6% in July 2008, and reached a record 94% in August 2009. The rapid adoption and commercial success of "flex" vehicles, as they are popularly known, together with the mandatory blend of alcohol with gasoline as E25 fuel, have increased ethanol consumption up to the point that by February 2008 a landmark in ethanol consumption was achieved when ethanol retail sales surpassed the 50% market share of the gasoline-powered fleet. This level of ethanol fuel consumption had not been reached since the end of the 1980s, at the peak of the Pr-lcool Program. Also, from 1979 until December 2009, Brazil has successfully reduced by more than 15 million the number of vehicles running just on gasoline (5.7 million neat ethanol, 9.3 million flex-fuel light vehicles, and 183 thousand flex-fuel motorcycles), thereby reducing the country's dependence on oil imports. The number of neat ethanol vehicles still in use is estimated between 2 to 3 million vehicles.
The 2009 Honda CG 150 Titan Mix was launched in the Brazilian market and became the first flex-fuel motorcycle sold in the world.
Under the auspices of the BioEthanol for Sustainable Transport (BEST) project, the first ethanol-powered (ED95) bus began operations in So Paulo city on December 2007 as a one-year trial project. During the trial period performance and emissions will be monitored as significant reductions are expected in carbon monoxide and particulate matter emissions, and as previous tests have shown a reduction in fuel economy of around 60% when ED95 is compared to regular diesel.
The latest innovation within the Brazilian flexible-fuel technology is the development of flex-fuel motorcycles. The first flex motorcycle was launched by Honda in March 2009. Produced by its Brazilian subsidiary Moto Honda da Amaznia, the CG 150 Titan Mix is sold for around US$2,700. In order to avoid cold start problems, the fuel tank must have at least 20% of gasoline at temperatures below 15C (59F). During the first eight months after its market launch the CG 150 Titan Mix has sold 139,059 motorcycles, capturing a 10.6% market share, and ranking second in sales of new motorcycles in the Brazilian market by October 2009.
Production
Economic and production indicators
Brazilian ethanol production(a)
(2004-2008)
(Millions of U.S. gallons)
2004
2005
2006
2007(b)
2008(b)
3,989
4,227
4,491
5,019
6,472
Note: (a) Ethanol all grades. (b) 2007 is for ethanol
fuel only.
Production by harvest year 1990/91 to 2007/08. Green is hydrated ethanol (E100) and yellow is anhydrous ethanol use for gasohol blending.
Ethanol production in Brazil uses sugarcane as feedstock and relies on first-generation technologies based on the use of the sucrose content of sugarcane. Ethanol yield has grown 3.77% per year since 1975 and productivity gains been based on improvements in the agricultural and industrial phases of the production process. Further improvements on best practices are expected to allow in the short to mid-term an average ethanol productivity of 9,000 liters per hectare.
There were 378 ethanol plants operating in Brazil by July 2008, 126 dedicated to ethanol production and 252 producing both sugar and ethanol. There are 15 additional plants dedicated exclusively to sugar production. These plants have an installed capacity of crushing 538 million metric tons of sugarcane per year, and there are 25 plants under construction expected to be on line by 2009 that will add an additional capacity of crushing 50 million tons of sugarcane per year. The typical plant cost approximately USD 150 million and requires a nearby sugarcane plantation of 30,000 hectares.
Ethanol production is concentrated in the Central and Southeast regions of the country, led by So Paulo state, with around 60% of the country's total ethanol production, followed by Paran (8%), Minas Gerais (8%) and Gois (5%). These two regions have been responsible for 90% of Brazil's ethanol production since 2005 and the harvest season goes from April to November. The Northeast Region is responsible for the remaining 10% of ethanol production, lead by Alagoas with 2% of total production. The harvest season in the North-Northeast region goes from September to March, and the average productivity in this region is lower than the South-Central region. Due to the difference in the two main harvest seasons, Brazilian statistics for sugar and ethanol production are commonly reported on a harvest two-year basis rather than on a calendar year.
For the 2008/09 harvest it is expected that about 44% of the sugarcane will be used for sugar, 1% for alcoholic beverages, and 55% for ethanol production. An estimate of between 24.9 billion litres (6.58 billion U.S. liquid gallons) to 27.1 billion litres (7.16 billion gallons) of ethanol are expected to be produced in 2008/09 harvest year, with most of the production being destined for the internal market, and only 4.2 billion liters (1.1 billion gallons) for exports, with an estimated 2.5 billion liters (660 million gallons) destined for the US market. Sugarcane cultivated area grew from 7 million to 7.8 million hectares of land from 2007 to 2008, mainly using abandoned pasture lands. In 2008 Brazil has 276 million hectares of arable land, 72% use for pasture, 16.9% for grain crops, and 2.8% for sugarcane, meaning that ethanol is just requiring approximately 1.5% of all arable land available in the country.
As sugar and ethanol share the same feedstock and their industrial processing is fully integrated, formal employment statistics are usually presented together. In 2000 there were 642,848 workers employed by these industries, and as ethanol production expanded, by 2005 there were 982,604 workers employed in the sugarcane cultivation and industrialization, including 414,668 workers in the sugarcane fields, 439,573 workers in the sugar mills, and 128,363 workers in the ethanol distilleries. While employment in the ethanol distilleries grew 88.4% from 2000 to 2005, employment in the sugar fields just grew 16.2% as a direct result of expansion of mechanical harvest instead manual harvesting, which avoids burning the sugarcane fields before manual cutting and also increases productivity. The states with the most employment in 2005 were So Paulo (39.2%), Pernambuco (15%), Alagoas (14.1%), Paran (7%), and Minas Gerais (5.6%).
Agricultural technology
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) plantation ready for harvest, Ituverava, So Paulo State.
Evolution of the ethanol productivity per hectare of sugarcane planted in Brazil between 1975 and 2004. Source: Goldemberg (2008).
Typical ethanol distillery and dehydration facility, Piracicaba, So Paulo State.
Variation of ethanol prices to producers in 2007 reflecting the harvest season supply. Yellow is for anhydrous ethanol and green is for hydrated ethanol (R$ per liter).
Ethanol fuel ready for distribution, Piracicaba, So Paulo State.
A key aspect for the development of the ethanol industry in Brazil was the investment in agricultural research and development by both the public and private sector. The work of EMBRAPA, the state-owned company in charge for applied research on agriculture, together with research developed by state institutes and universities, especially in the State of So Paulo, have allowed Brazil to became a major innovator in the fields of biotechnology and agronomic practices, resulting in the most efficient agricultural technology for sugarcane cultivation in the world. Efforts have been concentrated in increasing the efficiency of inputs and processes to optimize output per hectare of feedstock, and the result has been a threefold increase of sugarcane yields in 29 years, as Brazilian average ethanol yields went from 2,024 liters per ha in 1975 to 5,917 liters per ha in 2004; allowing the efficiency of ethanol production to grow at a rate of 3.77% per year. Brazilian biotechnologies include the development of sugarcane varieties that have a larger sugar or energy content, one of the main drivers for high yields of ethanol per unit of planted area. The increase of the index total recoverable sugar (TRS) from sugarcane has been very significant, 1.5% per year in the period 1977 to 2004, resulting in an increase from 95 to 140 kg/ha. Innovations in the industrial process have allowed an increase in sugar extraction in the period 1977 to 2003. The average annual improvement was 0.3%; some mills have already reached extraction efficiencies of 98%.
Biotechnology research and genetic improvement have led to the development of strains which are more resistant to disease, bacteria, and pests, and also have the capacity to respond to different environments, thus allowing the expansion of sugarcane cultivation to areas previously considered inaqueate for such cultures. By 2008 more than 500 sugarcane varieties are cultivated in Brazil, and 51 of them were released just during the last ten years. Four research programs, two private and two public, are devoted to further genetic improvement. Since the mid nineties, Brazilian biotechnology laboratories have developed transgenic varieties, still non commerciallized. Identification of 40,000 cane genes was completed in 2003 and there are a couple dozen research groups working on the functional genome, still on the experimental phase, but commercial results are expected within five years.
Also, there is ongoing research regarding sugarcane biological nitrogen fixation, with the most promising plant varieties showing yields three times the national average in soils of very low fertility, thus avoiding nitrogenous fertilization. There is also research for the development of second-generation or cellulosic ethanol. In So Paulo state an increase of 12% in sugar cane yield and 6.4% in sugar content is expected over the next decade. This advance combined with an expected 6.2% improvement in fermentation efficiency and 2% in sugar extraction, may increase ethanol yields by 29%, raising average ethanol productivity to 9,000 liters/ha. Approximately US$50 million has recently been allocated for research and projects focused on advancing the obtention of ethanol from sugarcane in So Paulo state.
Production process
Sucrose extracted from sugarcane accounts for little more than 30% of the chemical energy stored in the mature plant; 35% is in the leaves and stem tips, which are left in the fields during harvest, and 35% are in the fibrous material (bagasse) left over from pressing. Most of the industrial processing of sugarcane in Brazil is done through a very integrated production chain, allowing sugar production, industrial ethanol processing, and electricity generation from byproducts. The typical steps for large scale production of sugar and ethanol include milling, electricity generation, fermentation, distillation of ethanol, and dehydration.
Milling and refining
See also: Sugarcane
Once harvested, sugarcane is usually transported to the plant by semi-trailer trucks. After quality control sugarcane is washed, chopped, and shredded by revolving knives. The feedstock is fed to and extracted by a set of mill combinations to collect a juice, called garapa in Brazil, that contain 1015% sucrose, and bagasse, the fiber residue. The main objective of the milling process is to extract the largest possible amount of sucrose from the cane, and a secondary but important objective is the production of bagasse with a low moisture content as boiler fuel, as bagasse is burned for electricity generation (see below), allowing the plant to be self-sufficient in energy and to generate electricity for the local power grid. The cane juice or garapa is then filtered and treated by chemicals and pasteurized. Before evaporation, the juice is filtered once again, producing vinasse, a fluid rich in organic compounds. The syrup resulting from evaporation is then precipitated by crystallization producing a mixture of clear crystals surrounded by molasses. A centrifuge is used to separate the sugar from molasses, and the crystals are washed by addition of steam, after which the crystals are dried by an airflow. Upon cooling, sugar crystallizes out of the syrup. From this point, the sugar refining process continues to produced different types of sugar, and the molasses continue a separate process to produce ethanol.
Fermentation, distillation and dehydration
See also: Ethanol fermentation and Azeotropic distillation
The resulting molasses are treated to become a sterilized molasse free of impurities, ready to be fermented. In the fermentation process sugars are transformed into ethanol by addition of yeast. Fermentation time varies from four to twelve hours resulting in an alcohol content of 7-10% by total volume (GL), called fermented wine. The yeast is recovered from this wine through a centrifuge. Making use of the different boiling points the alcohol in the fermented wine is separated from the main resting solid components. The remaining product is hydrated ethanol with a concentration of 96GL, the highest concentration of ethanol that can be achieved via azeotropicdistillation, and by national specification can contain up to 4.9% of water by volume. This hydrous ethanol is the fuel used by ethanol-only and flex vehicles in the country. Further dehydration is normally done by addition of chemicals, up to the specified 99.7GL in order to produce anhydrous ethanol, which is used for blending with pure gasoline to obtain the country's E25 mandatory blend. The additional processing required to convert hydrated into anhydrous ethanol increases the cost of the fuel, as in 2007 the average producer price difference between the two was around 14% for So Paulo State. This production price difference, though small, contributes to the competitiveness of the hydrated ethanol (E100) used in Brazil, not only with regard to local gasoline prices but also as compared to other countries such as the US and Sweden, that only use anhydrous ethanol for their flex fuel fleet.
Electricity generation from bagasse
See also: Bioenergy
Neat ethanol car fueling E100 at a Piracicaba gas station, So Paulo.
Since the early days bagasse was burnt in the plant to provide the energy required for the industrial part of the process. Today, the Brazilian best practice uses high-pressure boilers that increases energy recovery, allowing most sugar-ethanol plants to be energetically self-sufficient and even sell surplus electricity to utilities. By 2000, the total amount of sugarcane bagasse produced per year was 50 million tons/dry basis out of more than 300 million tons of harvested sugarcane. Several authors estimated a potential power generation from the use of sugarcane bagasse ranging from 1,000 to 9,000 MW, depending on the technology used and the use of harvest trash. One utility in So Paulo is buying more than 1% of its electricity from sugar mills, with a production capacity of 600 MW for self-use and 100 MW for sale. According to analysis from Frost & Sullivan, Brazil's sugarcane bagasse used for power generation has reached 3.0 GW in 2007, and it is expected to reach 12.2 GW in 2014. The analysis also found tha sugarcane bagasse cogeneration accounts for 3% of the total Brazilian energy matrix. The energy is especially valuable to utilities because it is produced mainly in the dry season when hydroelectric dams are running low.
According to a study commissioned by the Dutch government in 2006 to evaluate the sustainability of Brazilian bioethanol "...there are also substantial gains possible in the efficiency of electricity use and generation: The electricity used for distillery operations has been estimated at 12.9 kWh/tonne cane, with a best available technology rate of 9.6 kWh/tonne cane . For electricity generation the efficiency could be increased from 18 kWh/tonne cane presently, to 29.1 kWh/tonne cane maximum. The production of surplus electricity could in theory be increased from 5.3 kWh/tonne cane to 19 kWh/tonne cane."
Overall Energy Use
Sugarcane plantation in the State of Pernambuco.
Energy-use associated with the production of sugarcane ethanol derives from three primary sources: the agricultural sector, the industrial sector, and the distribution sector. In the agricultural sector, 35.98 GJ of energy are used to plant, maintain, and harvest one hectare (10,000 m2) of sugarcane for usable biofuel. This includes energy from numerous inputs, including nitrogen, phosphate, potassium oxide, lime, seed, herbicides, insecticides, labor and diesel fuel. The industrial sector, which includes the milling and refining sugarcane and the production of ethanol fuel, uses 3.63 GJ of energy and generates 155.57 GJ of energy per hectare of sugarcane plantation. Scientists estimate that the potential power generated from the cogeneration of bagasse could range from 1,000 to 9,000 MW, depending on harvest and technology factors. In Brazil, this is about 3% of the total energy needed. The burning of bagasse can generate 18 kilowatt-hours, or 64.7 MJ per Mg of sugarcane. Distillery facilities require about 45 MJ to operate, leaving a surplus energy supply of 19.3 MJ, or 5.4 kWh. In terms of distribution, researchers calculates sugarcane ethanol transport energy requirement to be .44 GJ per cubic-meter, thus one hectare of land would require 2.82 GJ of energy for successful transport and distribution. After taking all three sectors into account, the EROEI (Energy Return over Energy Invested) for sugarcane ethanol is about 8.
There are several improvements to the industrial processes, such as adopting a hydrolysis process to produce ethanol instead of surplus electricity, or the use of advanced boiler and turbine technology to increase the electricity yield, or a higher use of excess bagasse and harvest trash currently left behind in the fields, that together with various other efficiency improvements in sugarcane farming and the distribution chain have the potential to allow further efficiency increases, translating into higher yields, lower production costs, and also further improvements in the energy balance and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
Exports
Brazilian ethanol exports
by selected country and region (2005-2007)
(Millions of liters)
Country/Region(1)
2007
%
2006
%
2005
%
United States(2)
932.75
26.4
1,777.43
51.9
270.97
10.5
CBI countries(3)
910.29
25.8
530.55
15.5
554.15
21.4
Jamaica
308.97
131.54
133.39
El Salvador
224.40
181.14
157.85
Costa Rica
170.37
91.26
126.69
Trinidad and Tobago
158.87
71.58
36.12
Mexico
42.21
50.24
100.10
European Union
1,004.17
28.4
587.31
17.1
530.73
20.5
Netherlands
808.56
346.61
259.40
Sweden
116.47
204.61
245.89
Japan
364.00
10.3
225.40
6.6
315.39
12.2
Nigeria
122.88
42.68
118.44
Republic of Korea
66.69
92.27
216.36
India
0
10.07
410.76
15.8
Total world exports
3,532.67
100
3,426.86
100
2,592.29
100
Notes: (1)Only countries with more than 100,000 liters imports on a given year are
shown. (2)It includes exports to Puerto Rico and U.S.Virgin Islands. (3) Including Mexico
that trades with the U.S. under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
Brazil is the world's largest exporter of ethanol. In 2007 it exported 933.4 million gallons (3,532.7 million liters), representing almost 20% of its production, and accounting for almost 50% of the global exports. Since 2004 Brazilian exporters have as their main customers the United States, Netherlands, Japan, Sweden, Jamaica, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Trinidad & Tobago, Nigeria, Mexico, India, and South Korea.
The countries in the Caribbean Basin import relative high quantities of Brazilian ethanol, but not much is destined for domestic consumption. These countries reprocess the product, usually converting Brazilian hydrated ethanol into anhydrous ethanol, and then re-export it to the United States, gaining value-added and avoiding the 2.5% duty and the USD 0,54 per gallon tariff, thanks to the trade agreements and benefits granted by Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI). This process is limited by a quota, set at 7% of U.S. ethanol consumption. Although direct U.S. exports fell in 2007, imports from four CBI countries almost doubled, increasing from 15.5% in 2006 to 25.8% in 2007, reflecting increasing re-exports to the U.S., thus partially compensating the loss of Brazilian direct exports to the U.S. This situation has caused some concerns in the United States, as it and Brazil are trying to build a partnership to increase ethanol production in Latin American and the Caribbean. As the U.S. is encouraging "new ethanol production in other countries, production that could directly compete with U.S.-produced ethanol".
The U.S., potentially the largest market for Brazilian ethanol imports, currently imposes a tariff on Brazilian ethanol of $USD 0.54 per gallon in order to encourage domestic ethanol production and protect the budding ethanol industry in the United States. This tariff is also intended to offset the 45-cent per gallon blender's federal tax credit that is applied to ethanol no matter its country of origin. Exports of Brazilian ethanol to the U.S. reached a total of US$ 1 billion in 2006, an increase of 1,020% over 2005 (US$ 98 millions), but fell significantly in 2007 due to sharp increases in American ethanol production from maize.
As shown in the table, the United States remains the largest single importer of Brazilian ethanol exports, though collectively the European Union and the CBI countries now import a similar amount.
As U.S. EPA's 2010 final ruling for the Renewable Fuel Standard designated Brazilian sugarcane ethanol as an advanced biofuel, Brazilian ethanol producers hope this classification will contribute to lift import tariffs both in the U.S. and the rest of the world. Also they expect to increase exports to the U.S., as the blending mandate requires an increasing quota of advanced biofuels, which is not likely to be fulfill with cellulosic ethanol, and then it would force blenders to import more Brazilian sugarcane-based ethanol, despite the existing 54 per gallon tariff on ethanol imported directly from Brazil, or duty-free from the CBI countries that convert Brazilian hydrated ethanol into anhydrous ethanol.
Prices and effect on oil consumption
Alcohol and gasoline prices per liter at Rio de Janeiro (left) and So Paulo (right), corresponding to a price ratio of E100 ethanol to E25 gasoline of 0.64 and 0.56.
Historical variation of ethanol production by region from 1990/91 to 2006/07 (harvest year). Light green is the production for the State of So Paulo.
Most automobiles in Brazil run either on hydrous alcohol (E100) or on gasohol (E25 blend), as the mixture of 25% anhydrous ethanol with gasoline is mandatory in the entire country. Since 2003, dual-fuel ethanol flex vehicles that run on any proportion of hydrous ethanol and gasoline have been gaining popularity. These have electronic sensors that detect the type of fuel and adjust the engine combustion to match, so users can choose the cheapest available fuel. There are 49 models available and sales reached 9.3 million by December 2009, 39% of the gasoline-powered market.
Due to the lower energy content of ethanol fuel, full flex-fuel vehicles get fewer miles per gallon. Ethanol price has to be between 25-30% cheaper per gallon to reach the break even point. As a rule of thumb, Brazilian consumers are frequently advised by the media to use more alcohol than gasoline in their mix only when ethanol prices are 30% lower or more than gasoline, as ethanol price fluctuates heavily depending on the harvest yields and seasonal fluctuation of sugarcane harvest.
Since 2005, ethanol prices have been very competitive without subsidies, even with gasoline prices kept constant in local currency since mid-2005, at a time when oil was just approaching USD 60 a barrel. However, Brazilian gasoline taxes are high, around 54%, while ethanol fuel taxes are lower and vary between 12% to 30%, depending of the state. As of October 2008 the average price of E25 gasoline was $4.39 per gallon while the average price for ethanol was USD 2.69 per gallon. This differential in taxation favors ethanol fuel consumption, and by the end of July 2008, when oil prices were close to its latest peak and the Brazilian real exchange rate to the US dollar was close to its most recent minimum, the average gasoline retail price at the pump in Brazil reached USD 6.00 per gallon. The price ratio between gasoline and ethanol fuel has been well above 30% during this period for most states, except during low sugar cane supply between harvests and for states located far away from the ethanol production centers. According to Brazilian producers, ethanol can remain competitive if the price of oil does not fall below USD 30 a barrel.
By 2008 consumption of ethanol fuel by the Brazilian fleet of light vehicles, as pure ethanol and in gasohol, is replacing gasoline at the rate of about 27,000 cubic meters per day, and by February 2008 the combined consumption of anhydrous and hydrated ethanol fuel surpassed 50% of the fuel that would be needed to run the light vehicle fleet on pure gasoline alone. Consumption of anhydrous ethanol for the mandatory E25 blend, together with hydrous ethanol used by flex vehicles, reached 1.432 billion liters, while pure gasoline consumption was 1.411 billion liters.
However, the effect on the country's overall petroleum consumption was smaller than that, as domestic oil consumption still far outweighs ethanol consumption. In 2005, Brazil consumed 2 million barrels (320,000 m3) of oil per day, versus 280,000 barrels (45,000 m3) of ethanol. Although Brazil is a major oil producer and now exports gasoline (19,000 m/day), it still must import oil because of internal demand for other oil byproducts, chiefly diesel fuel, which cannot be easily replaced by ethanol. When trucks and other diesel-powered vehicles are considered ethanol represented 16.9% of total energy consumption by the road transport sector in terms of energy equivalent to crude oil, and 14.9% of the entire transport sector.
Consumer price spread between E25 gasoline and E100 by state. Red and orange show states with average prices below the break even range. Ethanol price should be between 25 to 30% cheaper than gasoline to compensate its lower fuel economy.
State
Average
retail price
(R$/liter)
Price spread
E25 - E100
State
Average
retail price
(R$/liter)
Price spread
E25 - E100
State
Average
retail price
(R$/liter)
Price spread
E25 - E100
E100
E25
(%)
E100
E25
(%)
E100
E25
(%)
Acre (AC)
2.080
2.943
29.32
Maranho (MA)
1.709
2.628
34.97
Rio de Janeiro (RJ)
1.676
2.531
33.78
Alagoas (AL)
1.844
2.766
33.33
Mato Grosso (MT)
1.452
2.677
45.76
Rio Grande do Norte (RN)
1.940
2.669
27.31
Amap (AP)
2.246
2.686
16.38
Mato Grosso do Sul (MS)
1.683
2.676
37.11
Rio Grande do Sul (RS)
1.779
2.574
30.89
Amazonas (AM)
2.773
2.452
27.69
Minas Gerais (MG)
1.610
2.377
32.27
Rondnia (RR)
1.839
2.669
31.10
Bahia (BA)
1.630
2.522
35.37
Par (PA)
2.120
2.772
23.52
Roraima (RO)
2.154
2.710
20.52
Braslia (DF)
1.884
2.586
27.15
Paraba (PB)
1.883
2.553
26.24
Santa Catarina (SC)
1.697
2.556
33.61
Cear (CE)
1.768
2.510
29.56
Paran (PR)
1.445
2.429
40.51
So Paulo (SP)
1.306
2.398
45.54
Esprito Santo (ES)
1.795
2.662
32.57
Pernambuco (PE)
1.700
2.573
33.93
Sergipe (SE)
1.888
2.518
25.02
Gois (GO)
1.581
2.565
38.36
Piau (PI)
1.927
2.655
27.42
Tocantins (TO)
1.708
2.748
37.85
Country average
1.513
2.511
39.75
Source: Agncia Nacional do Petrleo (ANP). Average retail prices for week of 26/10/2008 to 01/11/2008.
Note: Data is presented in local currency because the exchange rate for the Brazilian real has been fluctuating heavily since the beginning of global financial crisis. Exchange rate for 2008-10-31 was USD 1 = R$ 2.16.
Comparison with the United States
Brazil's sugar cane-based industry is more efficient than the U.S. corn-based industry. Sugar cane ethanol has an energy balance seven times greater than ethanol produced from corn. Brazilian distillers are able to produce ethanol for 22 cents per liter, compared with the 30 cents per liter for corn-based ethanol. U.S. corn-derived ethanol costs 30% more because the corn starch must first be converted to sugar before being distilled into alcohol. Despite this cost differential in production, the U.S. does not import more Brazilian ethanol because of U.S. trade barriers corresponding to a tariff of 54-cent per gallon, first imposed in 1980, but kept to offset the 45-cent per gallon blender's federal tax credit that is applied to ethanol no matter its country of origin.
Sugarcane cultivation requires a tropical or subtropical climate, with a minimum of 600 mm (24 in) of annual rainfall. Sugarcane is one of the most efficient photosynthesizers in the plant kingdom, able to convert up to 2% of incident solar energy into biomass. Sugarcane production in the United States occurs in Florida, Louisiana, Hawaii, and Texas. The first three plants to produce sugarcane-based ethanol are expected to go online in Louisiana by mid 2009. Sugar mill plants in Lacassine, St. James and Bunkie were converted to sugar cane-based ethanol production using Colombian technology in order to make possible a profitable ethanol production. These three plants will produce 100 million gallons of ethanol within five years. By 2009 two other sugarcane ethanol production projects are being developed in Kauai, Hawaii and Imperial Valley, California.
Comparison of key characteristics between
the ethanol industries in the United States and Brazil
Characteristic
Brazil
U.S.
Units/comments
Feedstock
Sugar cane
Maize
Main cash crop for ethanol production, the US has less than 2% from other crops.
Total ethanol fuel production (2008)
6,472
9,000
Million U.S. liquid gallons.
Total arable land
355
270(1)
Million hectares.
Total area used for ethanol crop (2006)
3.6 (1%)
10 (3.7%)
Million hectares (% total arable).
Productivity per hectare
6,800-8,000
3,800-4,000
Liters of ethanol per hectare. Brazil is 727 to 870 gal/acre (2006), US is 321 to 424 gal/acre (2003).
Energy balance (input energy productivity)
8.3 to 10.2
1.3 to 1.6
Ratio of the energy obtained from ethanol/energy expended in its production.
Estimated GHG emissions reduction
86-90%(2)
10-30%(2)
% GHGs avoided by using ethanol instead of gasoline, using existing crop land (No ILUC).
EPA's estimated 2022 GHG reduction for RFS2.
61%(3)
21%
Average % GHGs change by using ethanol as compared to gasoline, considering direct and indirect land use change effects.
CARB's full life-cycle carbon intensity
73.40
105.10(4)
Grams of CO2 equivalent released per MJ of energy produced, includes indirect land use changes.
Estimated payback time for GHG emissions
17 years(5)
93 years(5)
Brazilian cerrado for sugarcane and US grassland for corn. Land use change scenarios by Fargione.
Flexible-fuel vehicle fleet
9.3 million
8.0 million
Autos and light trucks only. Brazil as of December 2009 (E100 FFVs). U.S. as of early 2009 (E85 FFVs).
Ethanol fueling stations in the country
35,017 (100%)
2,113 (1%)
As % of total gas stations in the country. Brazil by December 2007. U.S. by January 2010. (170,000 total)
Ethanol's share in the gasoline market
50%(6)
4%
As % of total consumption on a volumetric basis. Brazil as of April 2008. US as of December 2006.
Cost of production (USD/gallon)
0.83
1.14
2006/2007 for Brazil (22/liter), 2004 for U.S. (35/liter).
Government subsidy (in USD)
0 (7)
0.45/gallon
U.S. since 2009-01-01 as a tax credit. Brazilian ethanol production is no longer subsidized.(7)
Import tariffs (in USD)
20% (FOB)
0.54/gallon
Brazil does not import ethanol fuel since 2002. The U.S. does in a regular basis.
Notes: (1) Only contiguous U.S., excludes Alaska. (2) Assuming no land use change. (3) Estimate is for U.S. consumption and sugarcane ethanol is imported from Brazil. Emissions from sea transport are included. Both estimates include land transport within the U.S. (4) CARB estimate for Midwest corn ethanol. California's gasoline carbon intensity is 95.86 blended with 10% ethanol. (5) Assuming direct land use change only. (6) If diesel-powered vehicles are included and due to ethanol's lower energy content by volume, bioethanol represented 16.9% of the road sector energy consumption in 2007. (7) Brazilian ethanol production is no longer subsidized, but gasoline is heavily taxed favoring ethanol fuel consumption (~54% tax). By the end of July 2008, when oil prices were close to its latest peak and the Brazilian real exchange rate to the US dollar was close to its most recent minimum, the average gasoline retail price at the pump in Brazil was USD 6.00 per gallon, while the average US price was USD 3.98 per gallon. The latest gas retail price increase in Brazil occurred in late 2005, when oil price was at USD 60 per barrel.
Ethanol diplomacy
Presidents Luiz Incio Lula da Silva and George W. Bush during Bush's visit to Brazil, March 2007.
President Luiz Incio Lula da Silva and King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden inspecting one of the 400 buses running on ED95 on Stockholm.
In March 2007, "ethanol diplomacy" was the focus of President George W. Bush's Latin American tour, in which he and Brazil's president, Luiz Incio Lula da Silva, were seeking to promote the production and use of sugar cane based ethanol throughout Latin America and the Caribbean. The two countries also agreed to share technology and set international standards for biofuels. The Brazilian sugar cane technology transfer will permit various Central American countries, such as Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama, several Caribbean countries, and various Andean Countries tariff-free trade with the U.S. thanks to existing concessionary trade agreements.
Even though the U.S. has imposed a USD 0.54 tariff on every gallon of imported ethanol since 1980, the Caribbean nations and Central American countries are exempt from such duties based on the benefits granted by the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI). CBI provisions allow tariff-free access to the US market from ethanol produced from foreign feedstock (outside CBI countries) up to 7% of the previous year US consumption. Also additional quotas are allowed if the beneficiary countries produce at least 30% of the ethanol from local feedstocks up to an additional 35 million gallons. Thus, several countries have been importing hydrated ethanol from Brazil, processing it at local distilleries to dehydrate it, and then re-exporting it as anhydrous ethanol. American farmers have complained about this loophole to legally bypass the tariff. The 2005 Dominican Republic Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) maintained the benefits granted by the CBI, and CAFTA provisions established country-specific shares for Costa Rica and El Salvador within the overall quota. An initial annual allowance was established for each country, with gradually-increasing annual levels of access to the US market. The expectation is that using Brazilian technology for refining sugar cane based ethanol, such countries could become net exporters to the United States in the short-term. In August 2007, Brazil's President toured Mexico and several countries in Central America and the Caribbean to promote Brazilian ethanol technology.
The Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) that the American and Brazilian presidents signed in March 2007 may bring Brazil and the United States closer on energy policy, but it is not clear whether there has been substantive progress implementing the three pillars found in that agreement.
EMBRAPA's African Regional Office in Ghana.
Brazil has also extended its technical expertise to several African countries, including Ghana,Mozambique, Angola, and Kenya. This effort is led by EMBRAPA, the state-owned company in charge for applied research on agriculture, and responsible for most of the achievements in increasing sugarcane productivity during the last thirty years. Another 15 African countries have shown interest in receiving Brazilian technical aid to improve sugarcane productivity and to produced ethanol efficiently. Brazil also has bilateral cooperation agreements with several other countries in Europe and Asia.
As President Lula wrote for The Economist regarding Brazil's global agenda: "Brazil ethanol and biodiesel programmes are a benchmark for alternative and renewable fuel sources. Partnerships are being established with developing countries seeking to follow Brazil achievements 675m-tonne reduction of greenhouse-gas emissions, a million new jobs and a drastic reduction in dependence on imported fossil fuels coming from a dangerously small number of producer countries. All of this has been accomplished without compromising food security, which, on the contrary, has benefited from rising agricultural output...We are setting up offices in developing countries interested in benefiting from Brazilian know-how in this field."
Environmental and social impacts
Environmental effects
See also: Issues relating to biofuels
Benefits
Ethanol produced from sugarcane provides energy that is renewable and less carbon intensive than oil. Bioethanol reduces air pollution thanks to its cleaner emissions, and also contributes to mitigate global warming by reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Energy Balance
See also: Ethanol fuel energy balance
One of the main concerns about bioethanol production is the energy balance, the total amount of energy input into the process compared to the energy released by burning the resulting ethanol fuel. This balance considers the full cycle of producing the fuel, as cultivation, transportation and production require energy, including the use of oil and fertilizers. A comprehensive life cycle assessment commissioned by the State of So Paulo found that Brazilian sugarcane based ethanol has a favorable energy balance, varying from 8.3 for average conditions to 10.2 for best practice production. This means that for average conditions one unit of fossil-fuel energy is required to create 8.3 energy units from the resulting ethanol. These findings have been confirmed by other studies.
UK estimates for the carbon intensity of bioethanol and fossil fuels. As shown, Brazilian ethanol from sugarcane is the most efficient biofuel currently under commercial production in terms of GHG emission reduction.
Greenhouse gas emissions
See also: Low-carbon fuel standard
Another benefit of bioethanol is the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions as compared to gasoline, because as much carbon dioxide is taken up by the growing plants as is produced when the bioethanol is burnt, with a zero theoretical net contribution. Several studies have shown that sugarcane based ethanol reduces greenhouse gases by 86 to 90% if there is no significant land use change, and ethanol from sugarcane is regarded the most efficient biofuel currently under commercial production in terms of GHG emission reduction.
However, two studies published in 2008 are critical of previous assessments of greenhouse gas emissions reduction, as the authors considered that previous studies did not take into account the effect of land use changes. Recent assessments carried out in 2009 by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the California Air Resources Board (CARB) included the impact of indirect land use changes (ILUC) as part of the lifecycle analysis of crop-based biofuels. Brazilian sugarcane ethanol meets both the ruled California Low-Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS) and the proposed federal Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS2), despite the additional carbon emissions associated with ILUC. On February 3, 2010, EPA issued its final ruling regarding the RFS2 for 2010 and beyond, and determined that Brazilian ethanol produced from sugarcane complies with the applicable 50% GHG reduction threshold for the advanced fuel category. EPA modelling shows that sugarcane ethanol from Brazil reduces greenhouse gas emissions as compared to gasoline by 61%, using a 30-year payback for indirect land use change (ILUC) emissions.
A report commissioned by the United Nations, based on a detailed review of published research up to mid-2009 as well as the input of independent experts world-wide, found that ethanol from sugar cane as produced in Brazil "in some circumstances does better than just "zero emission." If grown and processed correctly, it has negative emission, pulling CO2 out of the atmosphere, rather than adding it. In contrast, the report found that U.S. use of maize for biofuel is less efficient, as sugarcane can lead to emissions reductions of between 70% and well over 100% when substituted for gasoline.
Air pollution
BEST's ED95 trial bus operating in So Paulo city.
The widespread use of ethanol brought several environmental benefits to urban centers regarding air pollution. Lead additives to gasoline were reduced through the 1980s as the amount of ethanol blended in the fuel was increased, and these additives were completely eliminated by 1991. The addition of ethanol blends instead of lead to gasoline lowered the total carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons, sulfur emissions, and particulate matter significantly. The use of ethanol-only vehicles has also reduced CO emissions drastically. Before the Pr-lcool Program started, when gasoline was the only fuel in use, CO emissions were higher than 50 g/km driven; they had been reduced to less than 5.8 g/km in 1995. Several studies have also shown that So Paulo has benefit with significantly less air pollution thanks to ethanol's cleaner emissions. Furthermore, Brazilian flex-fuel engines are being designed with higher compression ratios, taking advantage of the higher ethanol blends and maximizing the benefits of the higher oxygen content of ethanol, resulting in lower emissions and improving fuel efficiency.
Even though all automotive fossil fuels emit aldehydes, one of the drawbacks of the use of hydrated ethanol in ethanol-only engines is the increase in aldehyde emissions as compared with gasoline or gasohol. However, the present ambient concentrations of aldehyde, in So Paulo city are below the reference levels recommended as adequate to human health found in the literature. Other concern is that because formaldehyde and acetaldehyde emissions are significantly higher, and although both aldehydes occur naturally and are frequently found in the open environment, additional emissions may be important because of their role in smog formation. However, more research is required to establish the extent and direct consequences, if any, on health.
Issues
Typical sugarcane harvesting equipment, So Paulo state.
Sugar cane harvest loading operation for transport to the sugar/ethanol processing plant, without previous burning of the plantation, So Paulo state.
Mechanized sugarcane harvesting operation. Use of harvesting machines avoids the need for burning the plantation, So Paulo state.
Typical vehicle used for harvest transport to the sugar/ethanol processing plant at So Paulo state.
Water use and fertilizers
Ethanol production has also raised concerns regarding water overuse and pollution, soil erosion and possible contamination by excessive use of fertilizers. A study commissioned by the Dutch government in 2006 to evaluate the sustainability of Brazilian bioethanol concluded that there is sufficient water to supply all foreseeable long-term water requirements for sugarcane and ethanol production. Also, and as a result of legislation and technological progress, the amount of water collected for ethanol production has decreased considerably during the previous years. The overuse of water resources seems a limited problem in general in So Paulo, particularly because of the relatively high rainfall, yet, some local problems may occur. Regarding water pollution due to sugarcane production, Embrapa classifies the industry as level 1, which means "no impact" on water quality.
This evaluation also found that consumption of agrochemicals for sugar cane production is lower than in citric, corn, coffee and soybean cropping. Disease and pest control, including the use of agrochemicals, is a crucial element in all cane production. The study found that development of resistant sugar cane varieties is a crucial aspect of disease and pest control and is one of the primary objectives of Brazil cane genetic improvement programs. Disease control is one of the main reasons for the replacement of a commercial variety of sugar cane.
Field burning
Advancements in fertilizers and natural pesticides have all but eliminated the need to burn fields. Sugarcane fields are traditionally burned just before harvest to avoid harm to the workers, by removing the sharp leaves and killing snakes and other harmful animals, and also to fertilize the fields with ash. There has been less burning due to pressure from the public and health authorities, and as a result of the recent development of effective harvesting machines. A 2001 state law banned burning in sugarcane fields in So Paulo state by 2021, and machines will gradually replace human labor as the means of harvesting cane, except where the abrupt terrain does not allow for mechanical harvesting. However, 150 out of 170 of So Paulo's sugar cane processing plants signed in 2007 a voluntary agreement with the state government to comply by 2014. Independent growers signed in 2008 the voluntary agreement to comply, and the deadline was extended to 2017 for sugar cane fields located in more abrupt terrain. By the 2008 harvest season, around 47% of the cane was collected with harvesting machines. Mechanization will reduce pollution from burning fields and has higher productivity than people, but also will create unemployment for these seasonal workers, many of them coming from the poorest regions of Brazil. Due to mechanization the number of temporary workers in the sugarcane plantations has already declined.
Effects of land use change
See also: Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels
Two studies published in 2008 questioned the benefits estimated in previous assessments regarding the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from sugarcane based ethanol, as the authors consider that previous studies did not take into account the direct and indirect effect of land use changes. The authors found a "biofuel carbon debt" is created when Brazil and other developing countries convert land in undisturbed ecosystems, such as rainforests, savannas, or grasslands, to biofuel production, and to crop production when agricultural land is diverted to biofuel production. This land use change releases more CO2 than the annual greenhouse gas (GHG) reductions that these biofuels would provide by displacing fossil fuels. Among others, the study analyzed the case of Brazilian Cerrado being converted for sugarcane ethanol production. The biofuel carbon debt on converted Cerrado is estimated to be repaid in 17 years, the least amount of time of the scenarios that were analyzed, as for example, ethanol from US corn was estimated to have a 93 year payback time. The study conclusion is that the net effect of biofuel production via clearing of carbon-rich habitats is to increase CO2 emissions for decades or centuries relative to fossil fuel use.
Regarding this concern, previous studies conducted in Brazil have shown there are 355 million ha of arable land in Brazil, of which only 72 million ha are in use. Sugarcane is only taking 2% of arable land available, of which ethanol production represented 55% in 2008. Embrapa estimates that there is enough agricultural land available to increase at least 30 times the existing sugarcane plantation without endangering sensible ecosystems or taking land destined for food crops. Most future growth is expected to take place on abandoned pasture lands, as it has been the historical trend in So Paulo state. Also, productivity is expected to improve even further based on current biotechnology research, genetic improvement, and better agronomic practices, thus contributing to reduce land demand for future sugarcane cultures. This trend is demonstrated by the increases in agricultural production that took place in So Paulo state between 1990 and 2004, where coffee, orange, sugarcane and other food crops were grown in an almost constant area.
Also regarding the potential negative impacts of land use changes on carbon emissions, a study commissioned by the Dutch government concluded that "it is very difficult to determine the indirect effects of further land use for sugar cane production (i.e. sugar cane replacing another crop like soy or citrus crops, which in turn causes additional soy plantations replacing pastures, which in turn may cause deforestation), and also not logical to attribute all these soil carbon losses to sugar cane." Other authors have also questioned these indirect effects, as cattle pastures are displaced to the cheaper land near the Amazon. Studies rebutting this concern claim tha land devoted to free grazing cattle is shrinking, as density of cattle on pasture land increased from 1.28 heads of cattle/ha to 1.41 from 2001 to 2005, and further improvements are expected in cattle feeding practices.
A paper published in February 2010 by a team led by Lapola from the University of Kassel found that the planned expansion of biofuel plantations (sugarcane and soybean) in Brazil up to 2020 will have a small direct land-use impact on carbon emissions, but indirect land-use changes could offset the carbon savings from biofuels due to the expansion of the rangeland frontier into the Amazonian forests, particularly due to displacement of cattle ranching. "Sugarcane ethanol and soybean biodiesel each contribute to nearly half of the projected indirect deforestation of 121,970 km2 by 2020, creating a carbon debt that would take about 250 years to be repaid using these biofuels instead of fossil fuels." The analysis also showed that intensification of cattle ranching, combined with efforts to promote high-yielding oil crops are required to achieve effective carbon savings from biofuels in Brazil, "while still fulfilling all food and bioenergy demands."
The main Brazilian ethanol industry organization (UNICA) commented that this study and other calculations of land-use impacts are missing a key factor, the fact that in Brazil "cattle production and pasture has been intensifying already and is projected to do so in the future."
Deforestation
Location of environmentally valuable areas with respect to sugarcane plantations. So Paulo, located in the Southeast Region of Brazil, concentrates two-thirds of sugarcane cultures.
Other criticism have focused on the potential for clearing rain forests and other environmentally valuable land for sugarcane production, such as the Amazonia, the Pantanal or the Cerrado. Embrapa has rebutted this concern explaining that 99.7% of sugarcane plantations are located at least 2,000 km from the Amazonia, and expansion during the last 25 years took place in the Center-South region, also far away from the Amazonia, the Pantanal or the Atlantic forest. In So Paulo state growth took place in abandoned pasture lands.
The impact assessment regarding future changes in land use, forest protection and risks on biodiversity conducted as part of the study commissioned by the Dutch government concluded that "the direct impact of cane production on biodiversity is limited, because cane production replaces mainly pastures and/or food crop and sugar cane production takes place far from the major biomes in Brazil (Amazon Rain Forest, Cerrado, Atlantic Forest, Caatinga, Campos Sulinos and Pantanal)." However, "...the indirect impacts from an increase of the area under sugar cane production are likely more severe. The most important indirect impact would be an expansion of the area agricultural land at the expense of cerrados. The cerrados are an important biodiversity reserve. These indirect impacts are difficult to quantify and there is a lack of practically applicable criteria and indicators."
Brazil's president, Luiz Incio Lula da Silva has also claimed this concern is not valid. According to him "The Portuguese discovered a long time ago that the Amazon isn't a place to plant cane." In order to guarantee a sustainable development of ethanol production, the government is working on a countrywide zoning plan to restrict sugarcane growth in or near environmentally sensitive areas, allowing only the eight existing plants to remain operating in these sensitive areas, but without further extension of their sugarcane fields. The proposed restricted area has 4.6 million square kilometers, almost half of the Brazilian territory.
Social implications
Typical sugarcane worker during the harvest season, So Paulo state.
Sugarcane has had an important social contribution to the some of the poorest people in Brazil by providing income usually above the minimum wage, and a formal job with fringe benefits. Formal employment in Brazil accounts an average 45% across all sectors, while the sugarcane sector has a share of 72.9% formal jobs in 2007, up from 53.6% in 1992, and in the more developed sugarcane ethanol industry in So Paulo state formal employment reached 93.8% in 2005. Average wages in sugar cane and ethanol production are above the official minimum wage, but minimum wages may be insufficient to avoid poverty. The North-Northeast regions stands out for having much lower levels of education among workers and lower monthly income. The average number workers with 3 or less school years in Brazil is 58.8%, while in the Southeast this percentage is 46.2%, in the Northeast region is 76,4%. Therefore, earnings in the Center-South are not surprisingly higher than those in the North-Northeast for comparable levels of education. In 2005 sugarcane harvesting workers in the Center-South region received an average wage 58.7% higher than the average wage in the North-Northeast region. The main social problems are related to cane cutters which do most of the low-paid work related to ethanol production.
The total number of permanent employees in the sector fell by one-third between 1992 and 2003, in part due to the increasing reliance on mechanical harvesting, especially in the richest and more mature sugarcane producers of So Paulo state. During the same period, the share of temporary or seasonal workers has fluctuated, first declining and then increasing in recent years to about one-half of the total jobs in the sector, but in absolute terms the number of temporary workers has declined also. The sugarcane sector in the poorer Northeast region is more labor intensive as production in this region represents only 18.6% of the country's tot...
Spandex fetishism
China Product
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2009) lithium grease
Spandex Zentai suit dry lubricant
Spandex fetishism is a fetishistic attraction to people wearing stretch fabrics or, in certain cases, to the garments themselves and to oneself wearing the garments.[citation needed] Spandex garments are often worn by swimmers, dancers, rowers, contortionists and circus performers, and spandex fetishists may incorporate fantasies about these activities into their fetish. white lithium grease
One reason why spandex and other tight fabrics may be fetishised is that the garment forms a "second skin," acting as a fetishistic surrogate for the wearer's own skin. Wearers of skin-tight nylon and cotton spandex garments can appear naked or coated in a shiny or matte substance like paint. The tightness of the garments may also be seen as sexual bondage. Another reason is that nylon-spandex fabric (preferred by many spandex fetishists) is often produced with a very smooth and silk-like finish, which lends a tactile dimension to the fetish - as well as a visual one. The pressure of the tight garments against the genitals can become quite sensual.
In comic books, superheroes, superheroines, and supervillains are generally depicted as wearing costumes made of spandex or a similar material. The skintight, very flashy and bright-coloured costumes that often cover only just enough of the body to be presentable. Fantasies involving superheroes or the wearing of superhero costumes are commonly associated with spandex fetishism.[citation needed]
Full-body suits called zentai entirely immerse the wearer in skin tight fabric.[citation needed] The suits are essentially catsuits with gloves, feet, and a hood. The wearer gets to experience total enclosure and those who enjoy erotic objectification might make use of the garment's anonymizing aspect. Zentai fetishism appears to be quite popular in Japan and Europe.[citation needed] The word zentai means whole body in Japanese.
Kigurumi (, meaning cartoon-character costume), a form of Japanese costuming, often makes use of lycra as artificial skin.
Pantyhose fetishism can be viewed as a class of spandex fetishism.
Spandex fetish in popular culture
Anime
Anime often includes women in spandex or spandex-like catsuits, notably Cat's Eye, Yuki Mori/Nova from Star Blazers, Cutie Honey, Birth, and the plugsuits from Neon Genesis Evangelion.
Film and Television
The spysuits from Totally Spies! are of the type.
The Disney movie Tron also is notorious for its revealing spandex costumes.
The two most infamous films for spandex fetishists may be Breakin' (1984) and Heavenly Bodies (1984), both of which feature attractive young women dancing in tight, brightly-colored spandex outfits in nearly every frame. Television offered the disco-inspired jumpsuits worn by Wilma Deering (played by actress Erin Gray) during the first season of Buck Rogers in the 25th Century (19791981).
Panelology
While the majority of comicbook superheroines wear spandex in one form or another, several are known particularly for wearing a fullbody spandex catsuit, including Catwoman (Julie Newmar's portrayal launched the modern trend for superheroines to wear catsuits), Batgirl, Hellcat, Spider-Woman, Black Widow, Firestar, Phoenix, Black Cat, Rogue, Ms. Mystic, Dagger, Black Orchid, Empowered and the modern Invisible Woman. Miss Fury was the only well-known catsuited heroine predating Newmar's portrayal of Catwoman.
Photography
The gay porn star Peter Berlin popularized spandex fetishism beginning in the 1970s in the many erotic photographs he posed for that were published in many gay pornographic magazines, regular gay magazines, and in the theatre magazine After Dark.
See also
Cosplay
Dance belt
Dancewear
Darlex
G-string
Latex and PVC fetishism
Leggings
Polo neck
Robot fetishism
Skin-tight garment
Superhero erotica
Swimsuit
Zentai
References
^ The February 1975 issue of After Dark magazine included a photographic portfolio of the gay porn star Peter Berlin wearing spandex: Forbes, Dennis (text and photos), "Creating Peter Berlin", After Dark, Danad Publishing Company, Inc., New York, NY, February 1975, pp. 4451.
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