Golders Green

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History

Main article: History of Golders Green

The name Golders comes from a family named Godyere who lived in the area and Green alludes to the manorial waste the settlement was built on. Golders Green has been a place in the parish and manor of Hendon since around the 13th century. The earliest references to the name of the adjacent district of "Temple Fortune" is on a map (c1754). However this name reveals a much earlier history. It is likely that the name refers to the Knights of St John, who had land here (c1240). Fortune may be derived from a small settlement (tun) on the route from Hampstead to Hendon. Here a lane from Finchley, called Ducksetters Lane (c1475), intersected. It is likely that the settlement was originally the Bleccanham estate (c900s). By the end of the 18th century Temple Fortune Farm was established on the northern side of Farm Close. car seat isofix

The building of the Finchley Road (c1827) replaced Ducksetters Lane as a route to Finchley, and resulted in the development of a small hamlet. Hendon Park Row (c1860s) is of this period, and consisted of around thirty small dwellings built by a George Stevens, which were, with two exceptions, demolished (c1956). A small dame school and prayer house run by Anglican Deaconesses existed in the 1890s and 1900s, and developed to become St Barnabas (1915). Along the Finchley Road were a number of villas (c1830s), joined by the Royal Oak public house (c1850s). By the end of the 19th century there were around 300 people living in the area, which included a laundry and a small hospital for children with skin diseases. The principal industry was brick making. chicco infant car seat

Golders Green tube station sit n stroller

In 1895 a cemetery was established adjacent to Hoop Lane, with the first burial in 1897. Golders Green Crematorium was opened in 1902 (although much of it was built after 1905). A significant moment in Temple Fortune's development into a suburban area occurred in 1907, when transport links were vastly improved by the opening of Golders Green tube station.

Although the area had been served by horse-drawn omnibuses (since at least the 1880s) and later motor buses (from 1907), the tram line of 1910, connecting Finchley Church End with Golders Green Station, led to the development of the area west of the Finchley Road. The establishment of Hampstead Garden Suburb brought major changes to the area east of the Finchley Road. Temple Fortune Farm was demolished, and along the front of the road the building of the Arcade, and Gateway House (c1911) established the Hampstead Garden Suburb's retail district.

Both the Golders Green Hippodrome, former home of the BBC Concert Orchestra, and the Police Station opened in 1913. The now-demolished Orpheum Theatre (1930) was intended to rival the Hippodrome in Golders Green.

Geography

Originally Golders Green was part of the NW4 (Hendon) postal district,[citation needed] but owing to expanding population the district was split in two, creating the new NW11 district. This is why it is out of sequence with the London postal districts' alphabetical pattern, starting from the second district in each area.

Neighbouring areas

Hendon

Temple Fortune

Hampstead Garden Suburb

Brent Cross

Hampstead Heath

   Golders Green    

Cricklewood

Childs Hill

Hampstead

Demography

Golders Green is a cosmopolitan district. It has had a prominent Jewish community since the 1900s. There is a considerable Japanese community.[citation needed]

Economy

The area has restaurants with cuisines from all over the world, from Kosher food, through to Indian, Thai, Japanese, Chinese, Korean and Italian eateries. These are over a dozen coffee bars; together with a number of niche food stores, including two Japanese, two Iranian, one Korean and one Malaysian. The area is well known for late-night bagels, but has relatively few pubs, owing to tight control by the Church Commissioners, who own most of the land in Golders Green.[citation needed] One is The White Swan, on Golders Green Road towards Hendon, and the other is what was The Refectory, under the railway bridge crossing Finchley Road. In the 1960s, The Refectory was a well known and popular venue where many great musicians played, including John Mayall's band featuring Eric Clapton, Paul Butterfield's Blues Band, Lee Dorsey, Doris Troy and many others.[citation needed]

Transport

Golders Green station is a London Underground tube station on the Northern Line. It is the first surface station on the Edgware branch when heading north. On the station's forecourt is Golders Green bus station. This is a major hub for London Buses in north west London. National Express coaches also stop at the station.

Education

There is also a very large student population in Golders Green, most notably those attending the Central School of Speech and Drama.[citation needed]Henrietta Barnett School is located in Hampstead Garden Suburb.

Religious sites

Golders Green Parish Church (Church of England)

The Carmelite Monastery was established in Bridge Lane in 1908. St Edward the Confessor, a Roman Catholic church, was built in 1916. Dunstan Road Synagogue opened in 1922. There are now a number of synagogues, During the winter festival of Hanukkah a large menorah, a nine-branch candle holder, is lit each night of the festival's eight days. The expanding Orthodox, and particularly Haredi, Jewish community is considered to be one of the most significant[clarification needed] in the United Kingdom. There are also a large Hindu Temple and a Greek Orthodox cathedral.

Community facilities

Golders Hill Park, adjoining the West Heath of Hampstead Heath, is a formal park. The site of a large house which burned down in the 1930s, it has a walled garden, ponds, a water garden, caf, butterfly house and a small zoo. The zoo has been renovated and contains many varieties of birds and other creatures. During the summer, children's activities are organised and there is often live music on the bandstand. The park is adjoined by The Hill, a formal garden with an extensive and imposing pergola.

Golders Green Crematorium is perhaps the area's most famous feature, and has an extensive garden with features such as a special children's section and a pond. Its main buildings have a distinct Italianate air. It is sometimes referred to as the 'celebrity crematorium' because of the high proportion of nationally and internationally renowned public figures to have been cremated there. Famous people whose cremations have taken place include Kingsley Amis, Stanley Baldwin, Marc Bolan (born, Mark Feld), Neville Chamberlain, T. S. Eliot, Sigmund Freud, Hugh Gaitskell, John Inman, Keith Moon, Ivor Novello, Anna Pavlova, Frank Rutter, Peter Sellers and Ghisha Tuckman (born, Ghisha Koenig).

Appearances in popular culture

This "In popular culture" section may contain minor or trivial references. Please reorganize this content to explain the subject's impact on popular culture rather than simply listing appearances, and remove trivia references. (November 2009)

The area is the setting of the humorous short story "The Ghoul of Golders Green" (May Fair, 1925) by Michael Arlen.

A 1950s 'Goon Show' radio broadcast described a character travelling 'faster than an Arab cycling through Golders Green'.

A Monty Python's Flying Circus episode aired in December 1969 features a sketch called "The Llama" billed as "Live from Golders Green".

In the episode of Are You Being Served entitled Wedding Bells first aired 27 April 1975, Mr. Humphries discusses getting lost in Golders Green while dressed as an Arab for a fancy dress party. He is escorted home by two policemen for his own safety.

In the Hollywood film Marathon Man, Laurence Olivier, playing a Nazi torturer, tries in vain to disguise his identity when stopped in the street in New York, by saying that he actually runs a jewellery shop in Golders Green.

George Harrison recorded an unreleased track called "Going Down to Golders Green". This came about because he would visit members of the pop group Badfinger, who lived at 7 Park Avenue, off North End Road, situated on the borders of Golders Hill Park. The actor Lewis Collins (best known for The Professionals) also lived in Park Avenue for some years.

In a 'Derek and Clive' dialogue with Dudley Moore, Peter Cook claimed to have absent-mindedly 'slaughtered about 18,000' residents of Golders Green after watching a documentary about Hitler, ascribing this to the insidious influence of television.

Golders Green is the name of a character in the 2002 film 9 Dead Gay Guys.

Andrew Sanger's novel 'The J-Word' (Snowbooks, 2009) is set in Golders Green. Protagonist Jack Silver is attacked by an anti-semitic mob behind the tube station. He saves a rabbi's life before they turn on him. Jack often goes walking in Golders Green Park.

The song Sugar and Spice by pop band Madness released as a single in August 2009 references Golders Green and the Hippodrome in the lyrics.

Places of interest

Golders Green Hippodrome

Ivy House on North End Road, former home of the renowned Russian ballerina Anna Pavlova

Notes and references

^ Weinreb, Ben (2008). The London Encyclopaedia (3rd ed.). pp. 328-329. ISBN 978-1-4050-4924-5. 

^ St Edward Home page

^ Kosher in the country The Economist 01 Jun 2006 accessed 14 August 2007

^ "Buses from Golders Green". Transport for London. July 2009. http://www.tfl.gov.uk/tfl/gettingaround/maps/buses/pdf/goldersgreen-2098.pdf. Retrieved 2009-10-09. 

^ "Deaths", The Times, 20 April 1937, p. 1.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Golders Green

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London Borough of Barnet

Districts

Arkley  Barnet  Barnet Gate  Brent Cross  Brunswick Park  Burnt Oak  Childs Hill  Cricklewood  Church End Finchley  Cockfosters  Colney Hatch  Colindale  East Barnet  East Finchley  Edgware  Finchley  Friern Barnet  Golders Green  The Hale  Hampstead Garden Suburb  Hendon  The Hyde  Mill Hill  Monken Hadley  New Barnet  New Southgate  North Finchley  Oakleigh Park  Osidge  Temple Fortune  Totteridge  West Hendon  Whetstone  Woodside Park

Attractions

Hampstead Heath  RAF Museum

Constituencies

Chipping Barnet  Hendon  Finchley and Golders Green

Parks and open spaces in Barnet

Categories: Districts of London | Districts of Barnet | Orthodox Jewish communities in LondonHidden categories: Articles needing additional references from October 2008 | All articles needing additional references | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from November 2009 | Articles with unsourced statements from March 2007 | All pages needing cleanup | Wikipedia articles needing clarification from October 2009 | Articles with trivia sections from November 2009

Sony Ericsson W800

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Criticisms

Whilst being a highly capable phone, it does suffer from some of the flaws that the K750 does. The primary concern is that of the joystick. This has long been a contentious issue with some reviewers finding it hard to use and highly susceptible to damage over time, in as much as it will cease to function (although it should be noted that the W810i resolves this issue). The other is that the construction quality, whilst physically solid, is prone to creaking and wear over time. The screen, again whilst of a good out of the box quality, is prone to fingerprints and scratching owing to the fact it is mounted flush within the phone, meaning if left to rest face down damage can occur. The dust gets trapped inside the screen easily and reduces visibility of the display. However these factors have not stopped it becoming highly popular. Also the phone has been found to randomly restart and turn off, especially while coming out of the clock on sleep mode.

Some users experience a high level of background hiss and quantization noise when using the Walkman feature at low volume levels, a problem that first appeared in a firmware update. No official fix is planned, though end users have provided solutions that can be applied by directly accessing the phone's filesystem. . sdio wifi

Fake W800 directional coupler

A fake W800 has been released in China under the name of Music Mobile W800c. It is similar in design to the SE W800 but is slightly taller. The Walkman logo on the bottom of the phone is flipped horizontally, 'Sony Ericsson' at the top of the phone is replaced by 'music mobile', the 'Walkman' on the side is replaced by 'Musicvideo'. The fake phone has a 1.3 MP camera, FM radio and uses MicroSD cards. The phones software also copies some elements of the SE W800, the default wallpaper is the default Walkman image, the main menu uses Sony Ericsson icons (Walkman, PlayNow, Contacts etc.). cisco aironet 350

Variants

W800c - for Mainland China

W800i - for Africa, Americas, Asia, Australia and Europe

External links

The stereo portable handsfree headset, HPM-70, included with the W800 but with the grey colour.

Official W800 page

Tips and Tricks The Unofficial W800i Tips / Tricks / Shortcuts / FAQ and Resources

Theme Creator for W800 - Registration Needed.

Mass Storage Synchronizer - iTunes add-on for Sony Ericsson Walkman Phones (Windows)

iTuneMyWalkman - iTunes add-on for Sony Ericsson Walkman Phones (Mac OS X)

Using the Sony Ericsson K750i/W800i with GNU/Linux

A C# library for accessing the AT command interface of the phone

Mobile-Review.com music mobile phones comparison

Audit from National Vulnerability Database

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Principal Sony Ericsson/Ericsson mobile telephone models by series

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Wooden Leg

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It needs additional references or sources for verification. Tagged since September 2007. pop up canopy

It is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. Tagged since September 2009. canopy gazebo

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Wooden Leg.

Wooden Leg (Cheyenne Khamxvehthe) (18581940) was a Northern Cheyenne warrior who fought against Custer at the Battle of the Little Big Horn.

Wooden Leg was born, in 1858, in the region of the Black Hills, near the Cheyenne river. He was son of Many Bullet Wounds (also called White Buffalo Shaking off the Dust) and Eagle Feather on the Forehead. He had three brothers (the two elder ones being Strong Wind Blowing and Yellow Hair, the younger one Twin) and two sisters (the elder one being Crooked Nose, the younger one Fingers Woman).

During his childhood he was known as Eats from His Hand. Later, he inherited the name Wooden Leg from his uncle, a Crow adopted by the family of Eagle Feather on the Forehead. This young Crow proved to be a tireless walker, outlasting all the young Cheyenne and earning the name Wooden Leg, since his tireless legs seemed to be made of wood. Only his nephew was able to follow him during his endless walks and so the friends of Eats from His Hand began calling him by his uncle's name in sport. Eventually, Eats from His Hand took his uncle's name as his own.

In his childhood and youth, he lived among his tribe, wandering in the land between the Black Hills and the Little Bighorn river. During this period, he lived like any other Indian of the Plains, spending his time, hunting the game and fighting against the enemy tribes, in particular Crow and Shoshone.

The first remarkable battle with the white men he saw was the battle of Fort Kearny in 1866. Wooden Leg was too young to take part in the battle, but during the fight his eldest brother Strong Wind Blowing died. So, in spite of the final victory of the Cheyenne, that was a mourning day for all his family. At fourteen, he was invited by Left Hand Shooter to become part of the warrior society of the Elkhorn Scrapers, one of the three warrior societies (the other being the group of the Crazy Dog and the group of the Fox) in which the men of the tribe were divided. At seventeen, he went on retreat to thank the Great Spirit. He spent four days closed in a tepee, meditating and contemplating, visited only once a day. After the trial, his face was painted with a black circle enclosing his forehead, chin and cheeks; the internal area of the circle was yellow. This facial picture, together with his best suit, his shield and his flute made from the wing of an eagle, became part of his war equipment for the rest of his life.

At the end of the winter of 1876, after some sightings of white troops, the tribe encamped near the Powder river. During the night of 16 March 1876, because of the darkness and a storm, the sentinels saw nobody approaching; so, in the early morning of 17 March 1876, the soldiers, led by General Reynolds, attacked by surprise the Indian camp. Cheyenne fled everywhere; Wooden Leg, unarmed, took one of his horses and fled bringing with him towards safety two children. Because of the agitated flight, he abandoned his flute, which was later destroyed in the following destruction of the camp. After the battle, the Northern Cheyenne marched towards north-east, reaching the Oglala Sioux. Here they were joined by other tribes, such as Miniconjou, Sans Arcs, Santee Sioux and Blackfeet. Together they reached, and camped in, the valley of the Little Bighorn.

The morning of the 25 June 1876, while sleeping under a tree after a feasting night, Wooden Leg and his brother Yellow Hair were awaken by the cries of the old men claiming the arrival of the soldiers. Wooden Leg ran to his tent. He quickly prepared himself for the battle, then moved himself to the melee with his brother. At first, he fought with soldiers hidden and surrounded in the woods near the river. Defeating these enemies, he went towards the river where he found a rifle and ammunition. Then, he attacked the soldiers on the hills. The Battle of Little Bighorn lasted all day.

After the victorious battle, the Northern Cheyennes wandered for some time in the region of the Little Bighorn river, soon chased by the soldiers. Then some Cheyennes, who had lived for some time in the reservations of the United States, were sent by the U.S. Government to persuade the tribe to surrender and to live in a reservation. Because of their hunger, a great part of the tribe accepted the offer; Wooden Leg, with a group of other 34 Cheyennes, among which his brother Yellow Hair, refused, since he and his fellows "still desired, more than anything, that freedom that they considered a right". He lived a laborious life in the area of the Tongue river and the Powder river, until, again because of the hunger, he and other 30 Cheyennes decided to give up their lives as hunters and sought the reservation.

Wooden Leg entered in the reservation of the White River. He lived here until the soldiers moved the reservation southward. In this new place, he learned how to hunt eagles. However, the new reservation was very far from the native land of many Northern Cheyennes, so a group led by Little Wolf, disobeying the soldiers, left the reservation to go back to their ancient home. Wooden Leg at first refused to follow the old leader and remained in the reservation. In 1878, he married a Southern Cheyenne woman. After the death of his father, Wooden Leg and his family decided to leave the southern reservation. Passing from the White River reservation, renamed by that time as Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, they reached the place where Little Wolf and the other Cheyennes camped. It was the core of the future reservation of the Tongue River.

In 1889, Wooden Leg enlisted at Fort Keogh as a scout, and, in 1890, he guided the soldiers in the campaign of the Wounded Knee Massacre. In the same years, he served also a messenger and a sentry.

In 1906, thirty years after the battle of Little Bighorn, he took part to a meeting of whites and Indians, gathered on the field of the battle to remember that event. He spoke of the battle, being one of the few Indians who had the courage to tell his experience to Dixon, a white doctor.

In 1908, Wooden Leg was baptized by the priest in the reservation. He thought that the whites and the Indians worshiped the same god, even if in different manner (i.e.: calling him with different names).

In 1913, Wooden Leg, together with the young Little Wolf (nephew of the old Cheyenne leader), Two Moons and Black Wolf, was part of a delegation sent to Washington to speak about the Cheyenne tribe. During this journey, he visited Washington and New York. Back in the reservation, he became a judge: he had the responsibility to solve quarrels in the tribe and to teach the law of the United States. Twice, he was offered to become a chief in lower order of the warrior group of the Elkhorn Scrapers, but he refused; some white men called him Chief Wooden Leg, but indeed he was never a chief. He had two daughters, but they both died in their youth. After the death of the last daughter, he and his wife decided to adopt the son of his sister, John White Wolf.

In 1930, he was interviewed by Thomas B. Marquis, a former agency physician for the Cheyenne, and related a great deal of information about Cheyenne life prior to the reservations and the battle of Little Bighorn. His account is published in a book called Wooden Leg: A Warrior Who Fought Custer .

He died in 1940.

References

^ after modern Northern Cheyenne orthography. See Cheyenne Dictionary by Fisher, Leman, Pine, Sanchez.

^ Kum-mok-quiv-vi-ok-ta in Marquis 1931, pg. 3

Sources

"Wooden Leg - University of Nebraska Press," URL accessed 05/27/06

Thomas B. Marquis. Wooden Leg: A Warrior Who Fought Custer (Midwest Company, 1931).

Categories: 1858 births | 1940 deaths | Cheyenne tribe | Native American people | People of the Black Hills WarHidden categories: Articles lacking reliable references from September 2007 | Articles needing cleanup from September 2009 | Articles needing cleanup from September 2007 | All pages needing cleanup

Boyd Rice

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Biography

Rice became widely known through his involvement in V. Vale's RE/Search books. He is profiled in RE/Search #6/7: Industrial Culture Handbook and Pranks!. In Pranks, Rice described his experience in 1976 when he tried to give President Ford's wife, Betty Ford, a skinned sheep's head on a silver platter. In this interview, he emphasized the consensus nature of reality and the havoc that can be wreaked by refusing to play by the collective rules that dictate most people's perception of the external world.

In the mid-1980,s Rice became close friends with Anton LaVey, founder and High Priest of the Church of Satan, and was made a Priest, then later a Magister in the Council of Nine of the Church. The two admired much of the same music and shared a similar misanthropic outlook. Each had been inspired by Might is Right in fashioning various works: LaVey in his seminal Satanic Bible and Rice in several recordings. samsung p1000

Rice's Social Darwinist outlook eventually led to him founding the Social Darwinist think tank called The Abraxas Foundation, named after the ancient Gnostic god Abraxas. The organization promotes authoritarianism, totalitarianism, misanthropism, elitism, is antidemocratic, and has some philosophical overlap with the Church of Satan. During an interview with Christian talk show host Bob Larson, Rice described the basic philosophy of the foundation as being "The strong rule the weak, and the clever rule the strong".[citation needed] ibm thinkpad r40

Rice has documented the writings of Charles Manson in his role as contributing editor of The Manson File. Rice was a featured guest on Talk Back, a radio program hosted by the Evangelical Christian Bob Larson. In total, Rice made three appearances on Larson's program. ibook clamshell

Although Rice was sometimes reported to possess the world's largest Barbie collection, he confessed in a 2003 interview with Brian M. Clark to owning only a few.

In 2000, along with Tracy Twyman, editor of Dagobert's Revenge, Rice filmed a special on the Rennes-le-Chateau for the program In Search of... on Fox television. (The segment was later included in the 2002 version of In Search of... on the Sci Fi Channel.) Rice has done extensive research into Gnosticism as well as Grail legends and Merovingian lore, sharing this research in Dagobert's Revenge and The Vessel of God.

Rice was involved in creating a Tiki bar called Tiki Boyd's at the East Coast Bar in Denver, Colorado. Rice decorated the entire establishment out of his own pocket due to his fondness of Tiki culture, asking an open tab at the bar in return. Boyd has long expressed a love of Tiki culture, in contrast to the other elements of his public persona.[citation needed]

Tiki Boyd's was given its name in his honor. Due to disagreements between Rice and the owners, Rice pulled out of the deal and reclaimed all of his Tiki decorations. The future of the bar as it remains now is uncertain. Rice plans to re-establish another Tiki Bar elsewhere in Denver.[citation needed]

Music

Rice creates music under his own name, as well as under the moniker of NON and with contributors under various other project names.

Early sound experiments

Rice started creating experimental noise recordings in 1975, drawing on his interest in tape machines and bubblegum pop sung by female vocalists such as Little Peggy March and Ginny Arnell. One of his earliest efforts consisted entirely of a loop of every time Lesley Gore sang the word "cry". After initially creating recordings simply for his own listening, he later started to give performances, and eventually make records. His musical project NON grew out of these early experiments; he reportedly selected the name because "it implies everything and nothing".

Techniques and implementations

From his earliest recordings, Rice has experimented with both sound and the medium through which that sound is conveyed. His methods of expanding upon the listening possibilities for recorded music were simple. On his second seven-inch, he had 2-4 extra holes punched into the record for "multi axial rotation". Another early LP was titled Play At Any Speed. While working exclusively with vinyl, he employed locked grooves that allowed listeners to create their own music. He was one of the first artists, after John Cage, to treat turntables as instruments and developed various techniques for scratching. Rice has been treating sounds from vinyl recordings as early as 1975.

NON

Under the name NON, originally with second member Robert Turman, Rice has recorded several seminal noise music albums, and collaborated with experimental music/dark folk artists like Current 93, Death In June and Rose McDowall. Most of his music has been released on the Mute Records label. Rice has also collaborated with Foetus, Tony Wakeford of Sol Invictus and Michael Moynihan of Blood Axis. His later albums have often been explicitly conceptual.

On Might! (1995), Rice layers portions of "Ragnar Redbeard"'s Social Darwinist harangue, Might is Right over sound beds of looped noise and manipulated frequencies. 1997's God and Beast explores the intersection in the soul of man's physical and spiritual natures over the course of an album that alternates abrasive soundscapes with passages of tranquility.

In 2006, Rice returned to the studio to record raw vocal sound sources for a collaboration with Industrial percussionist/ethnomusicologist Z'EV. In addition he and long time friend Giddle Partridge are recording an album titled LOVE/LOVE-BANG/BANG!, under the band name of Giddle & Boyd.

Crowd control

Early NON performances were designed to offer choice to audience members who might otherwise expect only a prefabricated and totally passive entertainment experience. Rice has stated that he considers his performances to be "de-indoctrination rites". Rice has performed using a shoe polisher, the "rotoguitar" (an electric guitar with an electric fan on it), and other homemade instruments. He has also used found sounds, played at a volume just below the threshold of pain, to entice his audiences to endure his high decibel sound experiments.

Rice coupled his aural assaults with psychological torture on audiences in Den Haag, the Netherlands, by shining exceedingly bright lights in their faces that were deliberately placed just out of reach. As their frustration mounted, Rice states that he:

..continued to be friendly to the audience, which made them even madder, because they were so mad and I didn't care! They were shaking their fists at me, and I thought that at any minute there'd be a riot. So I took it as far as I thought I could, and then thanked them and left.

Controversy

In 1989, Rice and Bob Heick of the American Front were photographed for Sassy Magazine wearing uniforms and brandishing knives. While Rice would later recall it as a prank, the photo has caused boycotts and protests at many of Rice's appearances. When asked if he regrets the photo, Rice stated, "I don't care. I don't think I ever made a wrong move. The bad stuff is just good. America loves its villains".

This photograph was additionally published in the book Blood in the Face: The Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations, Nazi Skinheads, and the Rise of a New White Culture by James Ridgeway.

Rice has responded to accusations of fascism by stating:

I've always done everything at my disposal to avoid labeling what I do, or to avoid being labeled myself... To be beyond any existing classification has always pleased me. Unfortunately, I have learned over the years that when you refuse to be categorized, there's a world full of people (all entirely less well qualified) who are only too eager to pigeonhole what you do or think. That the pigeonholing is generally more a reflection of what they think, or assume, is fairly obvious The will to label will always prevail over what's being labeled, usually at the expense of either truth or understanding... I have never made any secret of any of my thoughts or areas of interest. I've always been honest, open, and upfront. I have never pretended to be a nice guy, because I'm not. It's fairly impossible to remain true to oneself and still be a "nice guy." Similarly, only people as misanthropic as myself can be counted on not to have to lie to others, since we have the unique luxury of not caring what sort of opinions others formulate about us... When all is said and done, I have no great quarrel with being labeled a "fascist." While it is not the whole story, it implies (to me) a sort of Marquis De Sade worldview that sees life in terms of master and slave, strong and weak, predator and prey. I know such views are highly unfashionable, but to me they seem fairly consistent with what I've seen to be true. If others choose to see the world in terms of sugar, spice and everything nice, that's certainly their prerogative, and I would never dream of trying to tell them otherwise. However, I might suggest that they always keep a loaded pistol on the off chance that they could possibly be mistaken.[citation needed]

Discography

Year

Title

Under

1977

The Black Album

Boyd Rice

1977

Mode of Infection/Knife Ladder - 7"

NON

1978

Pagan Muzak - 7" with multiple locked grooves

NON

1982

Rise - 12"

NON

1982

Physical Evidence

NON

1984/1981

Easy Listening For The Hard Of Hearing

Boyd Rice and Frank Tovey

1987

Blood and Flame

NON

1990

Music, Martinis and Misanthropy

Boyd Rice and Friends

1991

Easy Listening for Iron Youth - The Best of NON

NON

1992

In the Shadow of the Sword

NON

1993

Ragnarok Rune

Boyd Rice

1993

Seasons In The Sun

Spell

1994

The Monopoly Queen - 7"

The Monopoly Queen (w/ Mary Ellen Carver & Combustible Edison)

1995

Might!

NON

1995

Hatesville

The Boyd Rice Experience

1996

Heaven Sent

Scorpion Wind (w/ Douglas P. & John Murphy)

1997

God & Beast

NON

1999

Receive the Flame

NON

2000

The Way I Feel

Boyd Rice

2000

Solitude - 7" with locked grooves on B-side

NON

2001

Wolf Pact

Boyd Rice and Fiends

2002

Children of the Black Sun

NON

2004

Baptism By Fire (Live)

Boyd Rice and Fiends

2004

Terra Incognita: Ambient Works 1975 to Present

Boyd Rice/NON

2004

Alarm Agents

Death In June & Boyd Rice

2008

Going Steady With Peggy Moffitt

Giddle & Boyd

Films

Pranks! TV! (1986, VHS), directed by V. Vale, RE/Search Publications

Charles Manson Superstar (1989)

Speak of the Devil (1995, VHS), about Anton LaVey, directed by Nick Bougas, Wavelength Video

Pearls Before Swine (1999), directed by Richard Wolstencroft

Nixing The Twist (2000, DVD), directed by Frank Kelly Rich, High Crime Films

The Many Moods of Boyd Rice (2002, VHS), Predatory Instinct Productions

Church of Satan Interview Archive (2003, DVD), Purging Talon

Iconoclast (2009 release date) Directed by Larry Wessel (www.iconoclastmovie.com)

Modern Drunkard (In Production), directed by Frank Kelly Rich

Performance

Live in Osaka (DVD), features concert performance from Osaka, Japan, in 1989, with Michael Moynihan, Tony Wakeford, Douglas P., and Rose McDowall. Also includes Rice-made films Invocation (One) and Black Sun

Print

RE/Search No. 6: Industrial Culture Handbook, RE/Search Publications (1983, ISBN 0-940642-07-7)

RE/Search No. 10: Incredibly Strange Films: A Guide to Deviant Films, RE/Search Publications (1986, ISBN 0-940642-09-3) (joint author)

RE/Search No. 11: Pranks!. RE/Search Publications (1986, ISBN 0-9650469-8-2)

The Manson File edited by Nikolas Schreck, Amok Press (1988, ISBN 0-941693-04-X)

Apocalypse Culture: Expanded & Revised Edition edited by Adam Parfrey, Feral House, (1990, ISBN 0-922915-05-9).

ANSWER Me!, issue #3 (1993, ISBN 0-9764035-3-6)

ANSWER Me!, issue #4 (1994)

Apocalypse Culture II, edited by Adam Parfrey, Feral House (2000, ISBN 0-922915-57-1).

Paranoia: The Conspiracy Reader, issue 32, Spring 2003.

References

^ As stated by Shaun Patridge on the Unpop website:

^ Modern Drunkard Magazine Online staff writer list:

^ a b Vale, V. Juno, Andrea. Re/Search #6/7: Industrial Culture Handbook (1983) ISBN 0-940642-07-7

^ Juno, Andrea (Editor), Ballard, J. G. (Editor), Re/Search #11: Pranks (1987) ISBN 0-940642-10-7

^ "My Dinner with Bob Larson", Snake Oil magazine (1994)

^ From The Black Pimp Speaks, 2003 interview with Boyd Rice appearing in Rated Rookie magazine #6, 2004. Viewable online:

^ Rice's Official website for the project can be found here:

^ The official website for Tiki Boyd's can be found here:

^ "Laugh til it hurts". The Wire magazine (256). 

^ "With Pity Towards None (interview)". Tangents. 1997. http://www.boydrice.com/interviews/tangents.html. 

^ official website, www.boydrice.com

Persondata

NAME

Rice, Boyd

ALTERNATIVE NAMES

SHORT DESCRIPTION

Author

DATE OF BIRTH

PLACE OF BIRTH

Lemon Grove, California, United States

DATE OF DEATH

PLACE OF DEATH

Categories: 1956 births | Living people | Social Darwinists | Noise musicians | American industrial musicians | Sound artists | American SatanistsHidden categories: Articles needing cleanup from September 2008 | All pages needing cleanup | BLP articles lacking sources | Articles lacking reliable references from September 2008 | All articles lacking sources | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from November 2007 | Articles with unsourced statements from February 2008

Cartilage

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Growth and development

Main article: Chondrogenesis

In embryogenesis, the skeletal system is derived from the mesoderm germ layer. Chondrification (also known as chondrogenesis) is the process by which cartilage is formed from condensed mesenchyme tissue, which differentiates into chondrocytes and begins secreting the molecules that form the extracellular matrix: rovolution. ground venison

Skeletal blast cells that express the Sox9 transcription factor, followed by continued expression of Sox5 and Sox6, develop into chondroblast precursors, while those that express Runx2, followed by osterix develop into osteogenic precursors. The condroblastic differentiation is favored in regions under compressive forces and low pO2 because these downregulate BMP3, which normally inhibits cartilage differentiation. Osteogenic differentiation is favored under neutral or mild, intermittent tensile forces and relatively high pO2, which leads to upregulation of BMP4. High tensile strength favors the formation of tendinous connective tissue. popcorn popper

Diseases and treatment pure cocoa powder

Main article: Chondropathy

There are several diseases which can affect the cartilage. Chondrodystrophies are a group of diseases characterized by disturbance of growth and subsequent ossification of cartilage. Some common diseases affecting/involving the cartilage are listed below.

Osteoarthritis: The cartilage covering bones (articular cartilage) is thinned, eventually completely worn out, resulting in a "bone against bone" joint, reduced motion and pain. Ost, affects the joints exposed to high stress and is therefore considered the result of "wear and tear" rather than a true disease. It is treated by Arthroplasty, the replacement of the joint by a synthetic joint often made of a Stainless Steel alloy (cobalt chromoly) and High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (HMWPE). Chondroitin sulfate, a monomer of the polysaccharide portion of proteoglycan, has been shown to reduce the symptoms of osteoarthritis, possibly by increasing the synthesis of the extracellular matrix.

Traumatic rupture or detachment: The cartilage in the knee is frequently damaged, and can be partially repaired through knee cartilage replacement therapy

Achondroplasia: Reduced proliferation of chondrocytes in the epiphyseal plate of long bones during infancy and childhood, resulting in dwarfism.

Costochondritis: Inflammation of cartilage in the ribs, causing chest pain.

Spinal disc herniation : Asymmetrical compression of an intervertebral disc ruptures the sac-like disc, causing a herniation of its soft content. The hernia often compresses the adjacent nerves and causes back pain.

Relapsing polychondritis: a destruction, probably autoimmune, of cartilage, especially of the nose and ears, causing disfiguration. Death occurs by suffocation as the larynx loses its rigidity and collapses.

Tumors made up of cartilage tissue, either benign or malignant, can occur. They usually appear in bone, rarely in pre-existing cartilage. The benign tumors are called chondroma, the malignant ones chondrosarcoma. Tumors arising from other tissues may also produce a cartilage-like matrix, the best known being pleomorphic adenoma of the salivary glands.

The matrix of cartilage acts as a barrier, preventing the entry of lymphocytes or diffusion of immunoglobulins. This property allows for the transplantation of cartilage from one individual to another without fear of tissue rejection.

Repair

Cartilage has limited repair capabilities, because chondrocytes are bound in lacunae, they cannot migrate to damaged areas. Therefore if damaged, it is difficult to heal. Also, because hyaline cartilage does not have a blood supply, the deposition of new matrix is slow. Damaged hyaline cartilage is usually replaced by fibrocartilage scar tissue. Over the last years, surgeons and scientists have elaborated a series of cartilage repair procedures that help to postpone the need for joint replacement.

Bioengineering techniques are being developed to generate new cartilage, using a cellular "scaffolding" material and cultured cells to grow artificial cartilage.

Cartilage in animals

Cartilaginous fish

Cartilaginous fish (chondrichthyes) like sharks, rays and skates have a skeleton composed entirely of cartilage. Shark cartilage is a popular but unproven dietary supplement.

Invertebrate cartilage

Cartilage tissue can also be found among invertebrates such as horseshoe crabs, marine snails, and cephalopods.

See also

Biomechanics

References

^ Salentijn, L. Biology of Mineralized Tissues: Cartilage and Bone, Columbia University College of Dental Medicine post-graduate dental lecture series, 2007

^ International Cartilage Repair Society ICRS

General references

Keller-Peck, C. (2008). Vertebrate Histology, ZOOL 400. Boise State University. 

External links

KUMC.edu, Cartilage tutorial, University of Kansas Medical Center

Bartleby.com, text from Gray's anatomy

MadSci.org, I've heard 'Ears and nose do not ever stop growing.' Is this false?

CartilageHealth.com, Information on Articular Cartilage Injury Prevention, Repair and Rehabilitation

Cartilage.org, International Cartilage Repair Society

v  d  e

Musculoskeletal system  connective tissue: bone and cartilage (TA A02.0  GA 2.86-95)

Cartilage

perichondrium  fibrocartilage callus  metaphysis

cells (chondroblast  chondrocyte)

types (hyaline  elastic  fibrous)

Bone

Ossification

intramembranous  endochondral

Cycle

osteoblast  osteoid  osteocyte  osteoclast

Types

cancellous  cortical

Regions

subchondral bone  epiphysis  epiphyseal plate/metaphysis  diaphysis  Condyle  Epicondyle

Structure

osteon / Haversian system  Haversian canals  Volkmann's canals  connective tissue (endosteum  periosteum)  Sharpey's fibres  enthesis  lacunae  canaliculi  trabeculae  medullary cavity  bone marrow

Shapes

long  short  flat  irregular  sesamoid

Bone and cartilage navboxes: anat / physio / dev, noncongen / congen / neoplasia, symptoms+signs / eponymous signs, proc

Categories: Skeletal system | Tissues

Treehouse of Horror XV

China Product


Opening sequence

Kang and Kodos star in a fictional sitcom, entitled Keepin' it Kodos. In it, Kodos is preparing their boss' visit by cooking dinner: Homer, on a baking tray (continually eating himself), Bart, on a fryer, Marge and Maggie in a pie and Lisa in a soup. The boss gives the meal a delicious rating, but ends up liberating Bart, and gives Kang and Kodos a hyper-galactic promotion, much to the aliens' delight. Bart is sad about the loss of his parents and younger siblings, but Kang and Kodos adopt him. The Treehouse of Horror logo appears on the screen, as an alien hand stamps the "XV" underneath which makes it say, "Treehouse of Horror XV" in the fashion of the Belisarius Productions company logo.

Plot seagrass furniture

The Ned Zone daybed comforters

Trying to get his frisbee from the roof, Homer throws a bowling ball that eventually hits Ned on the head. When Ned recovers in Dr. Hibbert's hospital, he has a vision of the good doctor falling out of a window to his death, which actually happens shortly afterward when Homer asks him to get his frisbee from the window ledge. In a parody of The Dead Zone, Ned realizes that he can see the deaths of people whom he touches; he saves Hans Moleman from falling down and has a vision of him getting chewed up by American alligators. In shock, he drops Moleman - right into an open manhole full of alligators. He also predicts the closing of the Rosie O' Donnell musical, but he "didn't need special powers to know that was coming!" teak dining furniture

A later vision depicts him shooting Homer; when Homer finds out, he taunts Ned and even gives him Chief Wiggum's gun to shoot him with. Ned refrains from shooting Homer, and realizes he has changed the future, but then has another vision, this time of Homer blowing up Springfield by pressing the 'Core Destruct' button at the nuclear power plant. Ned tries to dissuade Homer from going to work, but Homer goes anyway because of ice cream cake for Lenny's birthday. Ned rushes to the power plant to stop Homer, but his warning is scrambled by static over the intercom, sounding as if he is encouraging Homer to press the button. In desperation, Ned grabs a nearby security guard's gun and forces himself to shoot Homer (thereby fulfilling the original prediction); but in his death throes, Homer presses the destruct button with his tongue. Ned has enough time to say "You stupid son of a..." before the power plant explodes and Springfield is destroyed. Ned, The Simpsons, and their garage (which Homer was assigned to clean, leading Marge to believe he blew up the town specifically to get out of doing so) go to Heaven as angels and meet God, who proceeds to give Homer "what he deserves" - returning his frisbee.

Four Beheadings and a Funeral

In 1890 London, the city's prostitutes are being killed with swords in a series of unsolved murders by "The Muttonchop Murderer". Scotland Yard Detective Eliza Simpson and her easily-amazed assistant Dr. Bartley (parodying Sherlock Holmes and Doctor Watson) trace the swords used back to the "wicked industrialist" C. Ebenezer Burns (so wicked, Bartley claims, that he makes coal out of babies). They find him in Mao's Den of Inequity, a London opium den, where he claims he lost all his wealth in swords to opium. The next suspect in mind is Homer, another man in the den possessing a set of 'muttonchops'. The police arrest Homer and are about to hang him when Eliza finds the real murderer: Inspector Wiggum, whose eel-pie covered handprints were all over a sword used to kill Selma, attempting to create a case that even Eliza could not solve. Wiggum attempts to escape in a hot-air balloon, which is destroyed by a large steampunk-style flying saucer flown by Kang and Kodos (both with muttonchops), who comment on destroying the Earth's air force. However, it all turns out to be a dream that Ralph Wiggum is having while smoking opium in an opium den, which is part of an even crazier dream.

In the Belly of the Boss

At the "Invention Expo", Professor Frink creates a machine that shrinks objects. Maggie (thinking that it is a ball pit) crawls inside a giant pill, which is miniaturized and swallowed by Mr. Burns. The rest of the family agrees to be shrunk within a craft and injected into Mr. Burns' body (parodying Fantastic Voyage). Homer is the captain, Lisa is in charge of science and research, Bart is in charge of security, and Marge is just herself. When Homer refuses to follow Frink's instructions, the ship gets stuck in Burns' heart. The crew manage to get the ship free and are able to reach the stomach by catching a ride on a nerve impulse. They manage to save Maggie, but are forced to leave Homer behind when their craft doesn't have enough power to save them all due to the addition of Maggie's weight. The submarine successfully escapes, and Prof. Frink tells them there is time to save Homer, but he is wrong, as Homer instantly returns to his original size inside Mr. Burns' skin after eating a huge marshmallow. Even though Homer complains that Mr. Burns needs several extra holes, Burns is confident that things will work out. The episode ends with Burns and Homer leading a dance to the tune of "I've Got You Under My Skin" (along with characters from all three segments and the opening sequence).

Cultural references

The hammering in of the Roman numeral in the opening is a reference to the logo of the production company Mark VII Limited.

"The Ned Zone" is a parody of The Dead Zone.

The Four Beheadings and a Funeral section is a reference to the movie Four Weddings and a Funeral and the Jack the Ripper murders in 19th century London.

"Eliza Simpson" is a parody of Sherlock Holmes and "Dr. Bartley" is a parody of Dr. Watson.

When Inspector Wiggum eats the eel pie, a live eel tries to come out of his mouth. This is a reference to the urban myth about having snakes living in your stomach.

The kidnapping suspect is Peter Pan (Squeaky Voiced Teen).

Many characters in our Beheadings and a Funeral speak with a pronounced Cockney accent.

Ebenezer Burns is a reference to Ebenezer Scrooge.

The Quimby character in our Beheadings and a Funeral wears a sash saying ord Mayor, thus being Lord Mayor of the City of London.

In our Beheadings and a Funeral Homer says he has "never known the pleasures of a woman or a proper eating apple" in reference to Captain Barbossa from Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl.

Inspector Wiggum and his son flying out of an ice-castle on a bed is a reference to the comic Little Nemo in Slumberland.

The third title, "In the Belly of the Boss" is a reference to In the Belly of the Beast, but the plot is a parody of Fantastic Voyage.

Professor Frink shows a drawing of a "retro-virus". Its style greatly resembles the works of Robert Crumb, who is said to have drawn it.

When Lisa and Bart pass a movie theater the movie showing is called "Abbott and Costello Meet Polio." This is a reference to some of Bud Abbotts and Lou Costello's films that started with "Abbott and Costello Meet."

While the Simpsons are being injected into Mr. Burns body, he is reading the Premiere magazine.

The song playing at the end of the last sketch is Frank Sinatra 've Got You Under My Skin.

The end credits play the opening theme of Perfect Strangers. This song also plays at the beginning of this episode.

External links

"Treehouse of Horror XV" at the Internet Movie Database

References

^ Woman gives birth to octopus.

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: "Treehouse of Horror XV"

The Simpsons portal

v  d  e

The Simpsons' Treehouse of Horror episodes

I  II  III  IV  V  VI  VII  VIII  IX  X  XI  XII  XIII  XIV  XV  XVI  XVII  XVIII  XIX  XX

Categories: Halloween fiction | The Simpsons episodes, season 16 | Halloween television specials | Size change in fiction | 2004 television episodes | Television season premieresHidden categories: Articles lacking sources from March 2008 | All articles lacking sources

ISO 14644

China Product


www.techsafety.com/news_industry.html. Retrieved 2008-01-17. 

^ "FED-STD-209E Cancellation". IEST. Last updated 2007-12-03. http://www.iest.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3480. Retrieved 2008-01-17. 

^ a b c d e f g h i j "ISO 14644 Standards". IEST. Last updated 2007-12-03. http://www.iest.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=3322. Retrieved 2008-01-17.  clip in human hair extensions

v  d  e human hair weave

ISO Standards wefts

Lists: List of ISO standards  List of ISO romanizations  List of IEC standards

Categories: Category:ISO standards  Category:OSI protocols

1-9k

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10k-

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See also: All articles beginning with "ISO"

Categories: ISO standards

Tranquilliser gun

China Product


A tranquilizer gun, capture gun or dart gun, is a non-lethal gun which is intended for chemical capture. Tranquilizer guns shoot darts filled with tranquilizer that, when injected, temporarily sedate the animal so that it may be handled (or captured) safely. The tranquilizer can be a sedative, anaesthetic, or paralytic agent. Tranquilizer guns have a long history of being used to capture wildlife without injury. Tranquilizer darts can also be fired by crossbow or breath-powered blowgun.

History

The tranquilizer gun was invented in the 1950s by New Zealander Colin Murdoch. While working with colleagues who were studying introduced wild goat and deer populations in New Zealand, Murdoch had the idea that the animals would be much easier to catch, examine and release if a dose of tranquilizer could be administered by projection from afar. Murdoch went on to develop a range of rifles, darts and pistols which have had an enormous impact on the treatment and study of animals around the world. infrared therapy

At the time Murdoch started testing his gun the only tranquilizer drugs available were curare, and alkaloids of nicotine, both of which tended to have fatal reactions in a high percentage of animals shot. In partnership with pharmaceutical companies, he helped develop more sophisticated drugs with predictable and safe reactions. anaesthesia machine

In Kenya in the early 1960s, a team headed by Dr. Tony Pooley and Dr. Toni Harthoorn discovered that different species, despite being of roughly equal size (for example, the rhinoceros and the buffalo), needed very different doses and spectra of drugs to safely immobilise them. anesthesia machine

Characteristics

The dart, essentially a ballistic syringe loaded with an immobilising drug and hypodermic needle, is propelled from the gun by means of compressed gas. In flight, the dart is stabilised by a tailpiece, a tuft of fibrous material, making it behave somewhat like a badminton shuttlecock. By substituting a different tailpiece, the same syringe design may be used interchangeably in airguns and blowguns. The needle may be plain, or collared; a collared needle has a barb-like circumferential ring that improves retention of the needle and syringe for recovery and to assure that the full dose is administered.

On impact with the animal, the momentum of a steel ball at the rear of the dart pushes the syringe plunger and injects the dose of barbiturate or other drug into the animal. The drug causes torpor and prostration within minutes. Because of the power of the drugs, the handlers then have to move quickly to secure the animal for transport, monitor its vital signs, protect its eyes and ears, and then inject antidotes when needed. Many large animals are acutely sensitive to stress and can easily die without careful treatment; in order to counter stress in targeted animals the gun is quiet, and there is usually a valve on the gun to control the dart velocity.

Tranquilizer agents

Several immobilising drugs have been invented for use in tranquillizer darts. These include:

Azaperone

Combelen (Bayer)

Domosedan (Farmos)

Dormicum (Roche)

Detomidine (Farmos)

Fentanyl (Janssen Pharmaceutica)

Etorphine hydrochloride (M99, Novartis)

Haloperidol (Kyron Laboratory)

Immobilon, a mixture of etorphine and a phenothioazine tranquilizer such as acepromazine or methotrimeprazine.

Serenace (Searle)

Valium 10 (Roche)

Xylazine (Rompun, Bayer)

These substances have been invented for animal injection only. Humans are far more affected by the drugs, as they trigger respiratory problems. The injection or consumption of only a drop of M99 is sufficient to kill an adult man within a few minutes if the correct antidote treatment is not administered immediately. Therefore, instead of the substances found above, only incapacitating agents would be suitable for military or police use.

Military and police use

Tranquillizer darts are not generally included in military or police less-than-lethal arsenals because no drug is yet known that would be quickly and reliably effective on humans without the risks of side effects or an overdose. This as effective use requires an estimate of weight to be able to determine how many darts (if any) can be fired on the human target. Shooting too few would result in no effect whatsoever, while too many can kill the target.

Examples

Some examples of dart guns include:

Paxarms Mark 24B dart gun

Pneu-Dart equipment Model 190B Air Activated Pistol

Pneu-Dart equipment Model 179B CO2 Pistol

Pneu-Dart equipment Model 178 Air Activated Rifle

Pneu-Dart equipment X-Caliber

Pneu-Dart equipment Model 176B CO2 Powered Rifle

Daystate Tranquilliser and Airgun Manufacturers Equipment Mark1 dart gun

Daystate Tranquilliser and Airgun Manufacturers Equipment Ranger dart gun

Palmer Cap-Chur Short Range Projector

Palmer Cap-Chur Mid Range Projector

Palmer Cap-Chur Long Range Projector

Palmer Cap-Chur Extra Long Range Projector

References

^ What is chemical capture?

^ Anaesthetics also used in dart guns

^ NZ Edge Heroes biography of Colin Murdoch

^ Tranquilizer agents

^ Tranquilliser agents

^ According to James Butts, Santa Monica, California Chief of Police, "Tranquilizing agents don't affect everyone uniformly. Therefore you cannot predict whether or not you have a sufficient dose to tranquilize the individual. Second, any tranquilizer will take time to enter the bloodstream and sedate the individual. If someone is advancing on you with a deadly weapon or a threatening object, there's no way a tranquilizer would take effect in the two to three seconds it would take someone to seriously injure you." Quoted by: Buren, Abigail Van. "Could Police Use Tranquilizer Darts?." San Francisco Chronicle. (June 8, 1997): 73.

^ Dart guns

^ Palmer Cap-chur projectors

Sources and literature

Harthoorn, Antonie Marinus, The Flying Syringe 

Harthoorn, Antonie Marinus, The Chemical Capture of Animals 

Anti-personnel dart design

Blow gun innoculating dart design

This firearms-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

v  d  e

Categories: Specialized firearms | Less-lethal weapons | Firearms stubs

Soroban

China Product


Construction

A suanpan (top) and a soroban (bottom). The two abaci seen here are of standard size and have thirteen rods each.

The soroban is composed of an odd number of columns or rods, each having beads: one bead valuing at five (called a heavenly bead) and four beads valuing at one (called an earth bead). Each set of beads of each rod is divided by a bar known as a reckoning bar. The number and size of beads in each rod make a standard-sized 13-rod soroban much less bulky than a standard-sized suanpan of similar expressive power. singer featherweight

The number of rods in a soroban is always odd and never less than nine. Basic models usually have thirteen rods, but the number of rods on practical or standard models often increases to 21, 23, 27 or even 31, thus allowing calculation of more digits or representations of several different numbers at the same time. Each rod represents a digit, and a larger number of rods allows the representation of more digits, either in singular form or during operations. overlockers

The beads and rods are made of a variety of different materials. Most soroban made in Japan are made of wood and have wood, metal, rattan, or bamboo rods for the beads to slide on. The beads themselves are usually biconal (shaped like a double-cone). They are normally made of wood, although the beads of some soroban, especially those made outside Japan, can be marble, stone, or even plastic. The cost of a soroban can increase depending on the materials. husqvarna sewing machine

One unique feature that sets the soroban apart from its Chinese cousin is a dot marking every third rod in a soroban. These are unit rods and any one of them is designated to denote the last digit of the whole number part of the calculation answer. Any number that is represented on rods to the right of this designated rod is part of the decimal part of the answer, unless the number is part of a division or multiplication calculation. Unit rods to the left of the designated one also aid in place value by denoting the groups in the number (such as thousands, millions, etc.). Suanpan usually do not have this feature.

Methods of operation

The methods of addition and subtraction on a soroban are basically the same as the equivalent operations on a suanpan, with basic addition and subtraction making use of a complementary number to add or subtract ten in carrying over.

There are many methods to perform both multiplication and division on a soroban, especially Chinese methods that came with the importation of the suanpan. The authority in Japan on the soroban, the Japan Abacus Committee, has recommended so-called standard methods for both multiplication and division which require only the use of the multiplication table. These methods were chosen for efficiency and speed in calculating.

Because the soroban developed through a reduction in the number of beads from seven, to six, and then to the present five, these methods can be used on the suanpan as well as on soroban produced before the 1930s, which have five "earth" beads and one "heavenly" bead.

Modern usage

Despite the popularity of calculators, the soroban is very much in use today. The Japanese Chamber of Commerce and Industry conducts examinations which soroban users can take to obtain licenses. There are six levels of mastery, starting from sixth-grade (very skilled) all the way up to first-grade (for those who have completely mastered the use of the soroban). Those obtaining at least a third-grade license are qualified to work in public corporations.

The soroban is taught in primary schools as a part of lessons in mathematics because the decimal number system can be demonstrated visually. When teaching the soroban, teachers give song-like instructions. Primary school students often bring two soroban to class, one with the modern configuration and the one having the older configuration of one heavenly bead and five earth beads.

Many soroban experts are also proficient in mental calculation, known as anzan (?, "blind calculation") in Japanese and as nsun in Mandarin Chinese. They do this by mentally visualizing the soroban (or any other abacus) and working out the problem without trying to figure out the answer beforehand. This is one reason why, despite the advent of handheld calculators, some parents send their children to private tutors to learn the soroban. Proficiency in soroban calculation can be easily converted to mental arithmetic at a highly advanced level.

The soroban is also the basis for two kinds of abaci developed for the use of blind people. One is the toggle-type abacus wherein flip switches are used instead of beads. The second is the Cranmer abacus which has circular beads, longer rods, and a leather backcover so the beads do not slide around when in use.

Brief history

The soroban's physical resemblance to the Chinese suanpan, as seen above, clearly indicates its origin. The number of beads, however, is similar to the Roman abacus, which had four beads below and one at the top.

Most historians on the soroban agree that it has its roots on the suanpan's importation to Japan via the Korean peninsula in the 15th century. When the suanpan first became native to Japan as the soroban (with its beads modified for ease of use), it had two heavenly beads and five earth beads. But the soroban was not widely used until the 17th century, although it was in use by Japanese merchants since its introduction. Once the soroban became popularly known, several Japanese mathematicians, including Seki Kowa, studied it extensively. These studies became evident on the improvements on the soroban itself and the operations used on it.

In the construction of the soroban itself, the number of beads had begun to decrease, especially at a time when the basis for Japanese currency was shifted from hexadecimal to decimal. In around 1850, one heavenly bead was removed from the suanpan configuration of two heavenly beads and five earth beads. This new Japanese configuration existed concurrently with the suanpan until the start of the Meiji era, after which the suanpan fell completely out of use. In 1891, Irie Gary further removed one earth bead, forming the modern configuration of one heavenly bead and four earth beads. This configuration was later reintroduced in 1930 and became popular in the 1940s.

A modern representation of the now obsolete division table.

Also, when the suanpan was imported to Japan, it came along with it its division table. The method of using the table was called kykih (?, "nine returning method") in Japanese, while the table itself was called the hassan (?, "eight calculation"). The division table used along with the suanpan was more popular because of the original hexadecimal configuration of Japanese currency. But because using the division table was complicated and it should be remembered along with the multiplication table, it soon fell out in 1935 (soon after the soroban's present form was reintroduced in 1930), with a so-called standard method replacing the use of the division table. This standard method of division, recommended today by the Japan Abacus Committee, was in fact an old method which used counting rods, first suggested by mathematician Momokawa Chubei in 1645, and therefore had to compete with the division table during the latter's heyday.

Soroban vs. electric calculator

On November 12, 1946, a contest was held in Tokyo between the Japanese soroban, used by Kiyoshi Matsuzaki, and an electric calculator, operated by US Army Private Thomas Nathan Wood. The bases for scoring in the contest were speed and accuracy of results in all four basic arithmetic operations and a problem which combines all four. The soroban won 4 to 1, with the electric calculator prevailing in multiplication.

About the event, the Nippon Times newspaper reported that "Civilization ... tottered" that day, while the Stars and Stripes newspaper described the soroban's "decisive" victory as an event in which "the machine age took a step backward...."

The breakdown of results is as follows:

Five additions problems for each heat, each problem consisting of 50 three- to six-digit numbers. The soroban won in two successive heats.

Five subtraction problems for each heat, each problem having six- to eight-digit minuends and subtrahends. The soroban won in the first and third heats; the second heat was a no contest.

Five multiplication problems, each problem having five- to 12-digit factors. The calculator won in the first and third heats; the soroban won on the second.

Five division problems, each problem having five- to 12-digit dividends and divisors. The soroban won in the first and third heats; the calculator won on the second.

A composite problem which the soroban answered correctly and won on this round. It consisted of:

An addition problem involving 30 six-digit numbers

Three subtraction problems, each with two six-digit numbers

Three multiplication problems, each with two figures containing a total of five to twelve digits

Three division problems, each with two figures containing a total of five to twelve digits

Even with the improvement of technology involving calculators, this event has yet to be replicated officially.

See also

Abacus

Suanpan

Chisanbop

References

^ abacus

^ The Abacus: A Brief History

^ Kojima (1954); see below

^ Frdric, Louis (2005), Japan encyclopedia, translated by Kthe Roth, Harvard University Press, p. 303, 903. 

^ Smith, David Eugene; Mikami, Yoshio (1914), "Chapter III: The Development of the Soroban.", A History of Japanese Mathematics, The Open Court Publishing, p. 4344.  Free digital copy available at Questia.

Kojima, Takashi (1954). The Japanese Abacus: its Use and Theory. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle. ISBN 0-8048-0278-5. 

Kojima, Takashi (1963). Advanced Abacus: Japanese Theory and Practice. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle. 

Bernazzani, David (March 2, 2005) (PDF). Soroban Abacus Handbook (Rev 1.05 ed.). http://webhome.idirect.com/~totton/soroban/THE%20ABACUS%20HANDBOOK.pdf. 

Heffelfinger, Totton; Flom, Gary (2004). Abacus: Mystery of the Bead. http://webhome.idirect.com/~totton/abacus. 

Knott, Cargill Gilston (December 16, 1885), "The Abacus, in Its Historic and Scientific Aspects" (PDF), The Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan xiv: 1872, http://webhome.idirect.com/~totton/soroban/Knott1885-Retyped.pdf 

External links

(Portuguese) Soroban Brasil

(Japanese) Flash Anzan (requires Macromedia Flash Player)

(Spanish) baco Japons Soroban

(French) F.F.S.A Fdration Franaise de Soroban et autres Abaques.

Soroban Cymru A site promoting the use of the abacus in Wales and the rest of the UK and elsewhere.

http://thewamaa.org/

Categories: Mechanical calculators | Japanese words and phrases | Abacus

Saint Peter

China Product


Names and etymologies

Peter is also known as Ben-Yonah/Bar-Yonah, Simon Peter, Cephas (Greek: ), and Kepha (Kepha and Cephas also mean rock)riginal name Shimon or Simeon.

New Testament account dustpan

Ruins of ancient Capernaum on north side of the Sea of Galilee. An Orthodox church is built on top of traditional site of Apostle Peter's house. electric sweeper

Peter's life story relies on the four Canonical Gospels, The Book of Acts, New Testament Letters, Non Canonical Gospels such as the Gospel According to the Hebrews and other Early Church accounts of his life and death. In the New Testament, he is the first of the disciples called during Jesus' ministry. It was during his first meeting with Jesus that Jesus named him Peter. Peter was to become the first apostle ordained by Jesus in the early church. rechargeable sweeper

Peter ran a fishing business in Bethsaida.[Jn. 1:44] He was named Simon, son of Jonah or John. The synoptic gospels all recount how Peter's mother-in-law was healed by Jesus at their home in Capernaum[Matt. 8:1417] [Mk. 1:2931] [Lk. 4:38] which, coupled with 1 Cor. 9:5, clearly depict Peter as married or a widower.

In the Synoptic Gospels, Peter (then Simon) was a fisherman along with his brother Andrew and the sons of Zebedee, James and John. The Gospel of John also depicts Peter fishing, even after the resurrection of Jesus, in the story of the Catch of 153 fish.

In Matthew and Mark, Jesus called Simon and his brother Andrew to be "fishers of men."[Matt. 4:1819] [Mk. 1:1617]

In Luke, Simon Peter owns the boat that Jesus uses to preach to the multitudes who were pressing on him at the shore of Lake Gennesaret.[Lk. 5:3] Jesus then amazes Simon and his companions James and John (Andrew is not mentioned) by telling them to lower their nets, whereupon they catch a huge number of fish. Immediately after this, they follow him.[Lk. 5:411]

The Gospel of John gives a comparable account of "The First Disciples."[Jn. 1:3542] In John, we are told that it was two disciples of John the Baptist (Andrew and an unnamed disciple) who heard John the Baptist announce Jesus as the "Lamb of God," and then followed Jesus. Andrew then went and fetched his brother Simon, saying, "We have found the Messiah," and then brought Simon to Jesus.

The "Rock" dialogue

In a dialogue between Jesus and his disciples (Matthew 16:13-20), Jesus asks, ho do people say that the Son of Man is? The disciples give various answers. When he asks, "Who do you say that I am?" Simon Peter answers, "You are the Christ, the Son of the living God." In turn, Jesus declares Peter to be "blessed" for having recognized Jesus' true identity and attributes this recognition to a divine revelation. Then Jesus addresses Simon by what seems to have been the nickname "Peter" (Cephas in Aramaic, Petros [rock] in Greek) and says, "On this rock (also cephas in Aramaic, petra in Greek) I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not prevail against it."

A common exegetical interpretation of Peter is provided by Daniel Harrington who suggests that Peter was an unlikely symbol of stability. While he was one of the first disciples called and served as the spokesman for the group, Peter is also the exemplar of "little faith" in Matthew 14, will soon be called "Satan" by Jesus and will eventually deny Jesus three times. In light of the Easter event, then, Peter became an exemplar of the forgiven sinner. A great variance of opinions exists as to the interpretation of this passage with respect to what authority and responsibility, if any, Jesus was giving to Peter.

Petros had not previously been used as a name, but in the Greek-speaking world it became a popular Christian name, after the tradition of Peter's prominence in the early Christian church had been established.

In the Eastern Orthodox Church this passage is interpreted as not implying a special prominence to the person of Peter, but to Peter's position as representative of the Apostles. The word used for "rock" (petra) grammatically refers to "a small detachment of the massive ledge", not to a massive boulder. Thus, Orthodox Sacred Tradition understands Jesus' words as referring to the Apostolic Faith.

The great majority of Western scholars concur with the interpretation, that the "rock" was Peter, not Jesus himself or Peter's faith.

Position among the apostles

Church of the Primacy of St. Peter on the Sea of Galilee. Traditional site where Jesus Christ appeared to his disciples after his resurrection and, according to Catholic tradition, established Peter's supreme jurisdiction over the Christian church.

Peter is always mentioned first in the lists of the Twelve given in the canonical gospels. He is also frequently mentioned in the Gospels as forming with James the Elder and John a special group within the Twelve Apostles, present at incidents at which the others were not present, such as at the Transfiguration of Jesus. He often confesses his faith in Jesus as the Messiah.

Peter is often depicted in the Gospels as spokesman of all the apostles. Catholics refer to him as chief of the Apostles, as do the Eastern Orthodox and the Oriental Orthodox. Some believe this is not the same as saying that the other Apostles were under Peter's orders. In contrast, Jewish Christians are said to have argued that James the Just was the leader of the group. Some argue James was the Patriarch of Jerusalem and that this position at times gave him privilege in some (but not all) situations. The early Church historian Eusebius (c AD 325) records Clement of Alexandria (c AD 190) as saying,

"For they say that Peter and James and John after the ascension of our Saviour, as if also preferred by our Lord, strove not after honor, but chose James the Just bishop of Jerusalem."

Paul affirms that Peter had the special charge of being apostle to the Jews, just as he, Paul, was apostle to the Gentiles.

Walking on water

Three of the four canonical Gospelsatthew, Mark and Johnecount the story of Jesus walking on water. Matthew additionally describes Peter walking on water for a moment, but sinking when his faith wavered.[Matt. 14:2831]

Washing of feet

At the beginning of the Last Supper, Jesus washed his disciples' feet. Peter initially refused to let Jesus wash his feet, but when Jesus responded: "If I wash thee not, thou hast no part with me", Peter replied: "Lord, not my feet only, but also my hands and my head".[Jn. 13:2-11] The washing of feet is often repeated in the service of worship on Maundy Thursday by some Christian denominations.

Arrest of Jesus

Apostle Peter striking Malchus

The three synoptic Gospels all mention that, when Jesus was arrested, one of his companions cut off the ear of a servant of the High Priest. The Gospel of John also includes this event, and names Peter as the swordsman and Malchus as the victim.[Jn. 18:10] Luke adds that Jesus touched the ear and miraculously healed it.[Lk. 22:50]

Denial of Jesus

All four canonical gospels recount that, during the Last Supper, Jesus foretold that Peter would deny him three times before the following cockcrow ("before the cock crows twice" in Mark's account).

The three Synoptics and John describe the three denials as follows:

A denial when a female servant of the high priest spots Simon Peter, saying that he had been with Jesus. According to Mark (but not in all manuscripts), "the rooster crowed". Only Luke and John mention a fire by which Peter was warming himself among other people: according to Luke, Peter was "sitting"; according to John, he was "standing".

A denial when Simon Peter had gone out to the gateway, away from the firelight, but the same servant girl (Mark) or another servant girl (Matthew) or a man (Luke and also John, for whom, though, this is the third denial) told the bystanders he was a follower of Jesus. According to John, "the rooster crowed".

A denial came when Peter's Galilean accent was taken as proof that he was indeed a disciple of Jesus. According to Matthew, Mark and Luke, "the rooster crowed". For John, though, this is the second denial, and he does not mention the Galilean accent.

Matthew adds that it was his accent that gave him away as coming from Galilee. Luke deviates slightly from this by stating that, rather than a crowd accusing Simon Peter, it was a third individual.

St. Peter Denying Christ, by Gustave Dor

The Gospel of John places the second denial while Peter was still warming himself at the fire, and gives as the occasion of the third denial a claim by someone to have seen him in the garden of Gethsemane when Jesus was arrested.

In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus' prediction of Peter's denial is coupled with a prediction that all the apostles ("you," plural) would be "sifted like wheat," but that it would be Peter's task ("you," singular), when he had turned again, to strengthen his brethren.

In a reminiscent scene in John's epilogue, Peter affirms three times that he loves Jesus.

Empty tomb

In John's gospel, Peter is the first person to enter the empty tomb, although the women and the beloved disciple see it before him.[Jn. 20:19] In Luke's account, the women's report of the empty tomb is dismissed by the apostles and Peter is the only one who goes to check for himself. In fact, he runs to the tomb. After seeing the graveclothes he goes home, apparently without informing the other disciples.[Lk. 24:112]

Resurrection appearances

Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians contains a list of resurrection appearances of Jesus, the first of which is an appearance to "Cephas" (Peter). Here Paul apparently follows an early tradition that Peter was the first to see the risen Christ, which however did not seem to have survived to the time when the Gospels were written.

In the final chapter of the Gospel of John, Peter, in one of the resurrection appearances of Jesus, three times affirmed his love for Jesus, balancing his threefold denial, and Jesus reconfirmed Peter's position.[Jn. 21:1517] Some scholars hypothesize that it was added later to bolster Peter's status.

Statue of St. Peter on the south door of St Mary's Church in Aylesbury, United Kingdom

Role in the early church

The author of the Acts of the Apostles portrays Peter as an extremely important figure within the early Christian community, with Peter delivering a significant open-air sermon during Pentecost. According to the same book, Peter took the lead in selecting a replacement for Judas Iscariot.[Acts 1:15] He was twice arraigned, with John, before the Sanhedrin and directly defied them.[Acts 4:722] [5:1842] He undertook a missionary journey to Lydda, Joppa and Caesarea,[9:3210:2] becoming instrumental in the decision to evangelise the Gentiles.

About halfway through, the Acts of the Apostles turns its attention away from Peter and to the activities of Paul, and the Bible is fairly silent on what occurred to Peter afterwards.

John Vidmar writes:

"Both Catholic and Protestant scholars agree that Peter had an authority that superseded that of the other apostles. Peter is their spokesman at several events, he conducts the election of Matthias, his opinion in the debate over converting Gentiles was crucial, etc.

Council of Jerusalem

Main article: Council of Jerusalem

At the council of Jerusalem (c 50), the early Church, Paul and the leaders of the Jerusalem church met and decided to embrace Gentile converts. Acts portrays Peter as successfully opposing the Christian Pharisees who insisted on circumcision and the rest of the Mosaic law.

Epistles

Peter is mentioned briefly in Paul's Epistle to the Galatians, which mentions a trip by Paul to Jerusalem where he meets Peter, and a trip by Peter to Antioch[Gal. 2:11-14] where Paul rebuked him for treating Gentile converts as inferior to Jewish Christians. (See The Incident at Antioch.) Galatians is accepted as authentic by almost all scholars, so these are the earliest mentions of Peter to be written.

Church tradition ascribes the epistles First and Second Peter to Apostle Peter, as does the text of 2 Peter itself. First Peter implies the author is in "Babylon", which has been held to be a coded reference to Rome. Some scholars regard First Peter as not authored by him, and there is still considerable debate about the Petrine authorship of Second Peter. However the Greek in both books are similar, and the early Church was adamantly opposed to pseudographical authorship.[page needed]

Accounts outside the New Testament

In Catholic tradition, Peter is said to have founded the church in Rome with Paul, served as its bishop, authored two epistles, and then met martyrdom there along with Paul.

Antioch and Corinth

Later accounts expand on the brief Biblical mention of his visit to Antioch. The Liber Pontificalis (9th century) mentions Peter as having served as bishop of Antioch before his journey to Rome. Historians have furnished other evidence of Peter's sojourn in Antioch. Subsequent tradition held that Peter had been the first Patriarch of Antioch.

He might have visited Corinth, as a party of "Cephas" existed there.

Death

In the epilogue of the Gospel of John, Jesus hints at the death by which Peter would glorify God,[Jn. 21:1819] saying "'when you are old you will stretch out your hands, and another will dress you and take you where you do not want to go.'" This is understood as a reference to Peter's crucifixion.

According to the 1911 Catholic Encyclopedia, St. Peter labored in Rome during the last portion of his life, and there ended his life by martyrdom. The death of St. Peter is attested to by Tertullian at the end of the second century, and by Origen in Eusebius, Church History II.1. Origen says: "Peter was crucified at Rome with his head downwards, as he himself had desired to suffer".

Status

St. Clement of Rome identifies Peter and Paul as the outstanding heroes of the faith. Papias reported that the Gospel of Mark was based on Peter's memoirs, a tradition still accepted by some scholars today.

Martyrdom

Caravaggio's depiction of the crucifixion of Apostle Peter.

The mention in the New Testament of the death of Peter says that Jesus indicated its form by saying: "You will stretch out your hands, and someone else will dress you and lead you where you do not want to go." Early church tradition (as indicated below) says Peter probably died by crucifixion (with arms outstretched) at the time of the Great Fire of Rome of the year 64. Margherita Guarducci, who led the research leading to the rediscovery of Peter tomb in its last stages (19631968), concludes Peter died on October 13 A.D. 64 during the festivities on the occasion of the ies imperii of Emperor Nero. This took place three months after the disastrous fire that destroyed Rome for which the emperor wished to blame the Christians. This ies imperii (regnal day anniversary) was an important one, exactly ten years after Nero ascended to the throne, and it was s usual accompanied by much bloodshed. Traditionally, Roman authorities sentenced him to death by crucifixion. According to the apocryphal Acts of Peter, he was crucified head down. Tradition also locates his burial place where the Basilica of Saint Peter was later built, directly beneath the Basilica's high altar.

Clement of Rome, in his Letter to the Corinthians (Chapter 5), written c. 80-98, speaks of Peter's martyrdom in the following terms: "Let us take the noble examples of our own generation. Through jealousy and envy the greatest and most just pillars of the Church were persecuted, and came even unto death Peter, through unjust envy, endured not one or two but many labours, and at last, having delivered his testimony, departed unto the place of glory due to him."

The apocryphal Acts of Peter is also thought to be the source for the tradition about the famous phrase "Quo vadis, Domine?" (or "Pou Hupageis, Kurie?" which means, "Whither goest Thou, Master?"). According to the story, Peter, fleeing Rome to avoid execution, asked the question of a vision of Jesus, to which Jesus allegedly responded that he was "going to Rome to be crucified again." On hearing this, Peter decided to return to the city to accept martyrdom. This story is commemorated in an Annibale Carracci painting. The Church of Quo Vadis, near the Catacombs of Saint Callistus, contains a stone in which Jesus' footprints from this event are supposedly preserved, though this was apparently an ex-voto from a pilgrim, and indeed a copy of the original, housed in the Basilica of St Sebastian.

The ancient historian Josephus describes how Roman soldiers would amuse themselves by crucifying criminals in different positions, and it is likely that this would have been known to the author of the Acts of Peter. The position attributed to Peter's crucifixion is thus plausible, either as having happened historically or as being an invention by the author of the Acts of Peter. Death, after crucifixion head down, is unlikely to be caused by suffocation, the usual cause of death in ordinary crucifixion.

A medieval tradition[citation needed] was that the Mamertine Prison in Rome is the place where Peter was imprisoned before his execution.

In 1950, human bones were found buried underneath the altar of St. Peter's Basilica. The bones have been claimed by many to have been those of Peter. An attempt to contradict these claims was made in 1953 by the excavation of what some believe to be St Peter's tomb in Jerusalem. However along with supposed tomb of Peter bearing his previous name Simon, tombs bearing the names of Jesus, Mary, James, John, and the rest of the apostles were also found at the same excavation - though all these names were very common among Jews at the time.

In the 1960s, some previously discarded debris from the excavations beneath St Peters Basilica were re-examined, and the bones of a male person were identified. A forensic examination found them to be a male of about 61 years of age from the first century. This caused Pope Paul VI in 1968 to announce them most likely to be the relics of Apostle Peter. .

Connection to Rome

St. Peter's Basilica, believed to be the burial site of St. Peter, seen from the River Tiber. The iconic dome dominates the skyline of Rome.

Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, believed to be the burial site of St. Paul.

See also: First phase of papal supremacy

The See of Rome is traditionally said to be founded by Peter and Paul, see also Primacy of Simon Peter, who had invested it with apostolic authority. The New Testament says nothing directly about Peter's connection to Rome, but an early Catholic tradition supports such a connection. St. Ignatius of Antioch implies that Peter and Paul had special authority over the Roman church. In his Letter to the Romans (Ch. 4) of c. 105-110, he tells the Roman Christians: "I do not command you, as Peter and Paul did."

Irenaeus of Lyons believed in the second century that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the Church in Rome and had appointed Linus as succeeding bishop.

Tertullian also writes: "But if you are near Italy, you have Rome, where authority is at hand for us too. What a happy church that is, on which the apostles poured out their whole doctrine with their blood; where Peter had a passion like that of the Lord, where Paul was crowned with the death of John (the Baptist, by being beheaded)." Dionysius of Corinth also serves as a witness to the tradition. He wrote: "You (Pope Soter) have also, by your very admonition, brought together the planting that was made by Peter and Paul at Rome and at Corinth; for both of them alike planted in our Corinth and taught us; and both alike, teaching similarly in Italy, suffered martyrdom at the same time". Later tradition, first found in Saint Jerome, attributes to Peter a 25-year episcopate (or apostolate) in Rome.

That Peter was bishop of Rome is corroborated by both positive and negative evidence.

However, some historians have challenged this traditional view of Peter's role in the early Roman Church. Still, most Catholic and Protestant scholars, and many scholars in general, conclude that Peter was indeed martyred in Rome under Nero.

According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, there was a Christian community at Rome before either Peter or Paul arrived there:

"Even on the Day of Pentecost, "Roman strangers" (adven Romani, Acts 2:10) were present at Jerusalem, and they surely must have carried the good news to their fellow-citizens at Rome ... according to the pseudo-Clementine Epistles, St. Barnabas was the first to preach the Gospel in the Eternal City."

Paul's Epistle to the Romans 16 (c 58) attests to a large Christian community already there, although he does not mention Peter.

The notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome and founded the Christian church there can be traced back no earlier than the third century.[neutrality is disputed]

The study of the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome.[neutrality is disputed]

Non-canonical sayings of Peter

Two sayings are attributed to Peter in the Gospel of Thomas. In the first, Peter compares Jesus to a "just messenger." In the second, Peter asks Jesus to "make Mary leave us, for females don't deserve life," although the verse containing the latter is regarded by most scholars as a dubious, later addition.[citation needed]

In the Apocalypse of Peter, Peter holds a dialogue with Jesus about the parable of the fig tree and the fate of sinners.

In the Gospel of Mary, whose text is largely fragmented, Peter appears to be jealous of "Mary" (probably Mary Magdalene). He says to the other disciples, "Did He really speak privately with a woman and not openly to us? Are we to turn about and all listen to her? Did He prefer her to us?" In reply to this, Levi says "Peter, you have always been hot tempered."

Other noncanonical texts that attribute sayings to Peter include the Secret Book of James and the Acts of Peter.

Denial of Jesus

In the Fayyum Fragment of the end of the third century, Jesus predicts that Peter will deny him three times before a cock crows twice (on the following morning). The account is similar to that of the canonical gospels, especially the Gospel of Mark, either an abbreviation of the account in the Synoptics or a source text on which they were based.

After the death of Jesus

The fragmentary Gospel of Peter, attributed to Peter, contains an account of the death of Jesus differing significantly from the canonical gospels. It contains little information about Peter himself, except that after the discovery of the empty tomb, "I, Simon Peter, and Andrew my brother, took our fishing nets and went to the sea."

Modern times

Joseph Smith, the founder of Mormonism, recorded in multiple revelations that Peter appeared to him and Oliver Cowdery in 1829 in order to bestow the apostleship and keys of the kingdom as part of a restoration of priesthood authority.

Religious interpretations

Catholic Church

Peter

Papacy began

AD 30?

Papacy ended

AD 64?

Predecessor

New creation

Successor

Linus

Personal details

Birth name

Simon/Simeon

Born

Bethsaida (traditional)

Died

Circa AD 64

City of Rome,

Present day Italy

Main articles: Primacy of Simon Peter and Primacy of the Roman Pontiff

According to Catholic belief, Peter was the first Bishop of Rome, who, by virtue of his position as successor of St. Peter, is the chief pastor of the whole Church, the Vicar of Christ upon earth. Although Peter never bore the title of "Pope", the Catholic Church recognizes him as the first Pope. Therefore, they consider every pope to be Peter's successor and the rightful superior of all other bishops. They recognize him as head of the Catholic Church on Earth, Christ being its Heavenly head. They base this claim on the words of Jesus from two famous Petrine texts, John 21:15-17 which concludes with eed my sheep and is seen by Catholics as promising the spiritual supremacy to Simon Peter and y charging him with the superintendency of all his sheep, without exception; and consequently of his whole flock, that is, of his own church,54] and Matthew 16:17-20:

I tell you that you are Peter,a and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hadesb will not overcome it.c I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will bed bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will bee loosed in heaven."

Matthew 16:18-20 (NIV)

NIV footnotes a through e (above):

aMatthew 16:18 Peter means rock.

bMatthew 16:18 Or hell

cMatthew 16:18 Or not prove stronger than it

dMatthew 16:19 Or have been

eMatthew 16:19 Or have been

In reference to Peter's occupation before becoming an Apostle, the popes wear the Fisherman's Ring, which bears an image of the saint casting his nets from a fishing boat. The keys used as a symbol of the pope's authority refer to the "keys of the kingdom of Heaven" promised to Peter.[Matt. 16:1819] The terminology of this "commission" of Peter is unmistakably parallel to the commissioning of Eliakim ben Hilkiah in Isaiah 22:1523. Peter is often depicted in both Western and Eastern Christian art holding a key or a set of keys.

Though the authenticity of this account has been challenged, the general consensus is that these are Jesus' words.

Feast days

Looking down into the confessio near the tomb of Apostle Peter, Saint Peter's Basilica, Rome.

The Roman Martyrology assigns 29 June as the feast day of both Peter and Paul, without thereby declaring that to be the day of their deaths. St. Augustine of Hippo says in his Sermon 295: "One day is assigned for the celebration of the martyrdom of the two apostles. But those two were one. Although their martyrdom occurred on different days, they were one."

This is also the feast of both Apostles in the calendar of the Eastern Orthodox Church.

In the Roman Rite, the feast of the Chair of Saint Peter is celebrated on 22 February, and the anniversary of the dedication of the two papal basilicas of Saint Peter's and Saint Paul's outside the Walls is held on 18 November.

Before Pope John XXIII's revision in 1960, the Roman Calendar also included on 16 January another feast of the Chair of Saint Peter (denominated the Chair of Saint Peter in Rome, while the February feast was then called that of the Chair of Saint Peter at Antioch), and on 1 August the feast of Saint Peter in Chains.

St. Peter's Basilica

Main article: St. Peter's Basilica

When, in the early fourth century, the Emperor Constantine I decided to honour Peter with a large basilica, the precise location of Peter's burial was so firmly fixed in the belief of the Christians of Rome that the building had to be erected on a site that involved considerable difficulties, both physical (excavating the slope of the Vatican Hill, while the great church could much more easily have been built on level ground only slightly to the south) and without moral and legal issues (demolishing a cemetery). The focal point of the Basilica, both in its original form and in its later complete reconstruction, is the altar placed over what is held to be the exact place where Peter was buried.

Protestants and other views

A major debate between Catholics and Protestants centers on Matthew 16:19 where Jesus tells Peter: "You are Peter, and on this rock I will build my Church...." Catholics interpret the verse as saying that Jesus would build his church on Peter, the apostle. The traditional Catholic interpretation has been that Jesus told Peter (Rock) that he would build his Church on this Rock (Peter), and that Peter was made the shepherd of the apostolic flock[Jn 21:15-19]ence their assertion of the Primacy of the Roman Pontiff.

Meaning of "Rock"

In the original Greek the word translated as "Peter" is (Petros) and that translated as "rock" is (petra), two words that, while not identical, give an impression of one of many times when Jesus used a play on words. Furthermore, since Jesus presumably spoke to Peter in their native Aramaic language, he would have used kepha in both instances. The Peshitta Text and the Old Syriac text use the word "kepha" for both "Peter" and "rock" in Matthew 16:18. John 1:42 says Jesus called Simon "Cephas", as does Paul in some letters. He was instructed by Christ to strengthen his brethren, i.e., the apostles.[Lk 22:31-32] Peter also had a leadership role in the early Christian church at Jerusalem according to The Acts of the Apostles chapters 1-2, 10-11, and 15.

Early Catholic Latin and Greek writers (such as St. John Chrysostom) considered the "foundation rock" as applying to both Peter personally and his confession of faith (or the faith of his confession) symbolically, as well as seeing Christ's promise to apply more generally to his twelve apostles and the Church at large. This "double meaning" interpretation is present in the current Catechism of the Catholic Church.

Protestant counter-claims to the Catholic interpretation are largely based on the difference between the Greek words translated "Rock" in the Matthean passage. In classical Attic Greek petros generally meant "pebble," while petra meant "boulder" or "cliff." Accordingly, taking Peter's name to mean "pebble," they argue that the "rock" in question cannot have been Peter, but something else, either Jesus himself, or the faith in Jesus that Peter had just professed. However, the New Testament was written in Koin Greek, not Attic Greek, and some authorities say no significant difference existed between the meanings of petros and petra.

Christ Handing the Keys to St Peter, by Pietro Perugino (1481-82)

However, even though the feminine noun petra is translated as rock in the phrase "on this rock I will build my church," the word petra ( in Greek) is also used at 1 Cor. 10:4 in describing Jesus Christ, which reads: "They all ate the same spiritual food and drank the same spiritual drink; for they drank from the spiritual rock that accompanied them, and that rock was Christ."

Although Matthew 16 is used as a primary proof-text for the Catholic doctrine of Papal supremacy, Protestant scholars say that prior to the Reformation of the sixteenth century, Matthew 16 was very rarely used to support papal claims. Their position is that most of the early and medieval Church interpreted the 'rock' as being a reference either to Christ or to Peter's faith, not Peter himself. They understand Jesus' remark to have been his affirmation of Peter's testimony that Jesus was the Son of God.

Another rebuttal of the Catholic position is that if Peter really means the Rock which makes him the chief of Apostles, it would contradict Bible's teaching in Ephesians 2:20 which says that the church's foundation is the apostles and prophets, not Peter alone. They posit that the meaning of Matthew 16:18 is that Jesus uses a play on words with Peter's name to say that the confession he had just made is the rock on which the church is built.

Other theologically conservative Christians, including Confessional Lutherans, also rebut comments made by Karl Keating and D.A. Carson who claim that there is no distinction between the words petros and petra in Koine Greek. The Lutheran theologians state that the dictionaries of Koine/NT Greek, including the authoritative Bauer-Danker-Arndt-Gingrich Lexicon, indeed list both words and the passages that give different meanings for each. The Lutheran theologians further note that:

We honor Peter and in fact some of our churches are named after him, but he was not the first pope, nor was he Roman Catholic. If you read his first letter, you will see that he did not teach a Roman hierarchy, but that all Christians are royal priests. The same keys given to Peter in Matthew 16 are given to the whole church of believers in Matthew 18

Partial Protestant support

Partial support for the Catholic position comes from one of Protestantism's most distinguished Church historians, Oscar Cullmann, a Lutheran theologian. He disagrees with Luther and the Protestant reformers who held that by "rock" Christ did not mean Peter, but meant either himself or the faith of His followers. He believes the meaning of the original Aramaic is very clear: that "Kepha" was the Aramaic word for "rock", and that it was also the name by which Christ called Peter.

Yet, Cullmann sharply rejects the Catholic claim that Peter began the papal succession. He writes: "In the life of Peter there is no starting point for a chain of succession to the leadership of the church at large." While he believes the Matthew text is entirely valid and is in no way spurious, he says it cannot be used as "warrant of the papal succession."

Cullmann concludes that while Peter was the original head of the apostles, Peter was not the founder of any visible church succession.

There are other Protestant scholars who also partially defend the historical Catholic position about "Rock." Taking a somewhat different approach from Cullman, they point out that the Gospel of Matthew was not written in the classical Attic form of Greek, but in the Hellenistic Koine dialect in which there is no distinction in meaning between petros and petra. Moreover, even in Attic Greek, in which the regular meaning of petros was a smallish "stone," there are instances of its use to refer to larger rocks, as in Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus v. 1595, where petros refers to a boulder used as a landmark, obviously something more than a pebble. In any case, a petros/petra distinction is irrelevant considering the Aramaic language in which the phrase might well have been spoken. In Greek, of any period, the feminine noun petra could not be used as the given name of a male, which may explain the use of Petros as the Greek word with which to translate Aramaic Kepha.

Yet, still other Protestant scholars believe that Jesus in fact did mean to single out Peter as the very rock which he will build upon, but that the passage does nothing to indicate a continued succession of Peter's implied position. They assert that Matthew uses the demonstrative pronoun taute, which allegedly means "this very" or this same, when he refers to the rock on which Jesus' church will be built. He also uses the Greek word for "and", kai. It is alleged that when a demonstrative pronoun is used with kai, the pronoun refers back to the preceding noun. The second rock Jesus refers to must then be the same rock as the first one; and if Peter is the first rock he must also be the second.

Eastern Orthodox

Icon of St. Peter (15th century, Russian State Museum, Saint Petersburg).

The Eastern Orthodox Church regards Apostle Peter, together with Apostle Paul, as "Preeminent Apostles". Another title used for Peter is Coryphaeus, which could be translated as "Choir-director", or lead singer. The church recognizes Apostle Peter's leadership role in the early church, especially in the very early days at Jerusalem, but does not consider him to have had any "princely" role over his fellow Apostles.

The New Testament is not seen by the Orthodox as supporting any extraordinary authority for Peter with regard to faith or morals. The Orthodox also hold that Peter did not act as leader at the Council of Jerusalem, but as merely one of a number who spoke. The final decision regarding the non-necessity of circumcision (and certain prohibitions) was spelled out by James, the Brother of the Lord (though Catholics hold James merely reiterated and fleshed out what Peter had said, regarding the latter's earlier divine revelation regarding the inclusion of Gentiles).

Eastern and Oriental Orthodox do not recognize the Bishop of Rome as the successor of St. Peter but the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople sends a delegation each year to Rome to participate in the celebration of the feast of Sts. Peter and Paul. In the Ravenna Document of 13 October 2007, the representatives of the Eastern Orthodox Church agreed that "Rome, as the Church that 'presides in love' according to the phrase of St. Ignatius of Antioch (To the Romans, Prologue), occupied the first place in the taxis, and that the bishop of Rome was therefore the protos among the patriarchs, if the Papacy unites with the Orthodox Church. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of the historical evidence from this era regarding the prerogatives of the bishop of Rome as protos, a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium."

With regard to Jesus' words to Peter, "Thou art Peter and upon this rock I will build my church", the Orthodox hold Christ is referring to the confession of faith, not the person of Peter as that upon which he will build the church. This is allegedly shown by the fact that the original Greek uses the feminine demonstrative pronoun when he says "upon this rock" ( ); whereas, grammatically, if he had been referring to Peter, he would allegedly have used the masculine. This "gender distinction" argument is also held by some Protestants.

The Orthodox also consider that St. Linus, not Peter, was the first Bishop of Rome,[citation needed], as do Catholics who define "pope" as "successor of Saint Peter".

Feast days

In the Orthodox Daily Office every Thursday throughout the year is dedicated to the Holy Apostles, including St. Peter. There are also two feast days in the year which are dedicated to him:

June 29, Feast of Saints Peter and Paulhis is a major feast day and is preceded by a period of Lenten fasting known as the Apostles' Fast

January 16, Veneration of the Precious Chains of the Holy and All-Glorious Apostle Peterommemorating both the chains which Acts 12:1-11 says miraculously fell from him, and the chains in which he was held before his martyrdom by Nero.

Syriac Orthodox Church

The Fathers of the Syriac Orthodox Church tried to give a theological interpretation to the primacy of Apostle Peter. They were fully convinced of the unique office of Peter in the primitive Christian community. Ephrem, Aphrahat and Marutha who were supposed to be the best exponents of the early Syriac tradition unequivocally acknowledge the office of Peter.

The Syriac Fathers following the rabbinic tradition call Jesus epha for they see ock in the Old Testament as a messianic Symbol. When Christ gave his own name epha to Simon he was giving him participation in the person and office of Christ. Christ who is the Kepha and shepherd made Simon the chief shepherd in his place and gave him the very name Kepha and said that on Kepha he would build the Church. Aphrahat shared the common Syriac tradition. For him Kepha is in fact another name of Jesus, and Simon was given the right to share the name. The person who receives somebody else name also obtains the rights of the person who bestows the name. Aphrahat makes the stone taken from Jordan a type of Peter. He says Jesus son of Nun set up the stones for a witness in Israel; Jesus our Saviour called Simon Kepha Sarirto and set him as the faithful witness among nations.

Again he says in his commentary on Deuteronomy that Moses brought forth water from ock (Kepha) for the people and Jesus sent Simon Kepha to carry his teachings among nations. Our Lord accepted him and made him the foundation of the Church and called him Kepha. When he speaks about transfiguration of Christ he calls him Simon Peter, the foundation of the Church. Ephrem also shared the same view. In Armenian version of De Virginitate records Peter the Rock shunned honour Who was the head of the Apostles. In a mimro of Efrem found in Holy Week Liturgy points to the importance of Peter.

Both Aphrahat and Ephrem represent the authentic tradition of the Syrian Church. The different orders of liturgies used for sanctification of Church building, marriage, ordination etc. reveal that the primacy of Peter is a part of living faith of the Church.

Seventh Day Adventist understanding

When Christ on the eve of His betrayal forewarned His disciples, "All ye shall be offended because of Me this night," Peter confidently declared, "Although all shall be offended, yet will not I."[Mk. 14:27,29] Self-confidence misled him, but in a few short hours the test came, and with cursing and swearing he denied his Lord, then the crowing of the cock reminded him of the words of Christ. Now his self-confidence was gone. Never again were the old boastful assertions repeated. Christ after His resurrection thrice tested Peter. "Simon, son of Jonas," He said, "lovest thou Me more than these?" Peter did not now exalt himself above his brethren. He appealed to the One who could read His heart. "Lord," he said, "Thou knowest all things; Thou knowest that I love Thee."[Jn. 21:15,17] Then he received his commission. Christ bade him feed the sheep and the lambs. Christ gave to Peter the strongest proof of confidence in his restoration. Though Peter had grievously sinned, he was not forsaken. The words of Christ were written upon his soul, "I have prayed for thee, that thy faith fail not."[Lk. 22:32] When Jesus asked, "Whom do men say that I the Son of man am?"[Mk. 8:27] Sadly the disciples were forced to acknowledge that Israel had failed to recognize their Messiah. ut whom say ye that I am?"[Mk. 8:29] Peter answered, "Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God." Peter had expressed the faith of the twelve. Jesus answered Peter, saying, "Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-jona Bar-jona: for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but My Father which is in heaven." The truth which Peter had confessed is the foundation of the believer's faith. he secret of the Lord is with them that fear Him;" and the fact that Peter discerned the glory of Christ was evidence that he had been "taught of God."[Ps. 25:14] [Jn. 6:45] Jesus continued: "I say also unto thee, That thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build My church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it." Peter was not the rock upon which the church was founded. The gates of hell did prevail against him when he denied his Lord with cursing and swearing. Peter himself, writing by inspiration, applies this prophecy to Jesus. He says, "If ye have tasted that the Lord is gracious: unto whom coming, a living stone, rejected indeed of men, but with God elect, precious, ye also, as living stones, are built up a spiritual house."[1 Pet. 2:3-5] "Other foundation can no man lay than that is laid, which is Jesus Christ.[1 Cor. 3:11] "The keys of the kingdom of heaven"[Mt. 16:19] are the words of Christ. All the words of Holy Scripture are His, and are here included. These words have power to open and to shut heaven. Christ had accepted Peter's acknowledgment of Him as the Son of God; and now His words pointing to His suffering and death seemed incomprehensible. Peter could not keep silent. He laid hold upon his Master, as if to draw Him back from His impending doom, exclaiming, "Be it far from Thee, Lord: this shall not be unto Thee."[Matt. 16:22] Peter did not desire to see the cross in the work of Christ. The impression which his words would make was directly opposed to that which Christ desired to make on the minds of His followers, and the Saviour was moved to utter one of the sternest rebuke that ever fell from His lips: "Get thee behind Me, Satan: thou art an offense unto Me: for thou savorest not the things that be of God, but those that be of men."Mt. 16:23 Satan was trying to discourage Jesus, and turn Him from His mission; But the Savior heeded it not; His thought was for His disciple. Satan had interposed between Peter and his Master, that the heart of the disciple might not be touched at the vision of Christ's humiliation for him. The words of Christ were spoken, not to Peter, but to the one who was trying to separate him from his Redeemer. "Get thee behind Me, Satan." No longer interpose between Me and My erring servant. Let Me come face to face with Peter, that I may reveal to him the mystery of My love.

Quoted from Acts of the Apostles by Ellen White.

New Apostolic Church

The New Apostolic Church, who believes in the re-established Apostle ministry, sees Peter as the first Chief Apostle.

Latter Day Saint movement

Bronze statue on the LDS Church's Temple Square (Salt Lake City, Utah, USA) depicting Peter, James, and John conferring the Melchizedek priesthood in 1829 on Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church or "Mormons") along with other sects of the Latter Day Saint movement believe that Peter was the first leader of the early Christian church, but reject papal succession. In interpreting Matthew 16:1319 the LDS Church has stated, "The words then addressed to him, 'Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church,' have been made the foundation of the papal claims. But it is the Godhead of Christ, which Peter had just confessed, that is the true keystone of the Church." Latter-day saints believe that Peter, James, and John. came from heaven and conferred the keys of the Melchizedek Priesthood upon Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery in 1829, near Harmony Township, Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania as part of the restoration of priesthood authority.

Afro-American syncretism

In the Cuban Santera and Palo Mayombe, he has been syncretized with Ogn.

Jewish folklore

Main article: Saint Peter and Judaism

Saint Peter statue, Israel

According to Jewish folklore (Toledot Yeshu narrative), St. Peter (Shimeon Kepha Ha-Tzadik) had a pristine reputation as a greatly learned and holy man.

Writings

Traditionally, two canonical epistles (1 & 2 Peter) and several apocryphal works have been attributed to Peter.

New Testament

A 6th-century encaustic icon from Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai.

The New Testament includes two letters (epistles) ascribed to Peter. Both demonstrate a high quality of cultured and urban Greek, at odds with the linguistic skill that would ordinarily be expected of an Aramaic-speaking fisherman, who would have learned Greek as a second or third language. However, the author of the first epistle explicitly claims to be using a secretary (see below), and this explanation would allow for discrepancies in style without entailing a different source. The textual features of these two epistles are such that a majority of scholars doubt that they were written by the same hand. This means at the most that Peter could not have authored both, or at the least that he used a different secretary for each letter. Some scholars argue that theological differences imply different sources, and point to the lack of references to 2 Peter among the early Church Fathers.

Of the two epistles, the first epistle is considered the earlier. A number of scholars have argued that the textual discrepancies with what would be expected of the biblical Peter are due to it having been written with the help of a secretary or as an amanuensis. Indeed in the first epistle the use of a secretary is clearly described: "By Silvanus, a faithful brother unto you, as I suppose, I have written briefly, exhorting, and testifying that this is the true grace of God wherein ye stand".[1 Pet. 5:12] Thus, in regards to at least the first epistle, the claims that Peter would have written Greek poorly seem irrelevant. The references to persecution of Christians, which only began under Nero, cause most scholars to date the text to at least 80, which would require Peter to have survived to an age that was, at that time, extremely old, and almost never reached, particularly by common fishermen. However, the Roman historian Tacitus and the biographer Suetonius both record that Nero's persecution of Christians began immediately after the fire that burned Rome in 64. Such a date, which is in accord with Christian tradition, especially Eusebius (History book 2, 24.1), would not have Peter at an improbable age upon his death. On the other hand, many scholars consider this in reference to the persecution of Christians in Asia Minor during the reign of the emperor Domitian (81-96).

In the salutation of the First Epistle of Peter, the writer refers to the diaspora, which did not occur until 136: Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, to God's elect, strangers in the world, scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia, who have been chosen according to the foreknowledge of God the Father, through the sanctifying work of the Spirit, for obedience to Jesus Christ and sprinkling by his blood: Grace and peace be yours in abundance.

The Second Epistle of Peter, on the other hand, appears to have been copied, in part, from the Epistle of Jude, and some modern scholars date its composition as late as c. 150. Some scholars argue the opposite, that the Epistle of Jude copied 2 Peter, while others contend an early date for Jude and thus observe that an early date is not incompatible with the text. Many scholars have noted the similarities between the apocryphal second pseudo-Epistle of Clement (2nd century) and 2 Peter. Second Peter may be earlier than 150, there are a few possible references to it that date back to the first century or early second century, e.g., 1 Clement written in c. AD 96, and the later church historian Eusebius claimed that Origen had made reference to the epistle before 250. Even in early times there was controversy over its authorship, and 2 Peter was often not included in the Biblical Canon; it was only in the 4th century that it gained a firm foothold in the New Testament, in a series of synods. In the east the Syrian Orthodox Church still did not admit it into the canon until the 6th century.

Traditionally, the Gospel of Mark was said to have been written by a person named John Mark, and that this person was an assistant to Peter, hence its content was traditionally seen as the closest to Peter's viewpoint. According to Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History, Papias recorded this belief from John the Presbyter:

Mark having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately whatsoever he remembered. It was not, however, in exact order that he related the sayings or deeds of Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor accompanied Him. But afterwards, as I said, he accompanied Peter, who accommodated his instructions to the necessities [of his hearers], but with no intention of giving a normal or chronological narrative of the Lord's sayings. Wherefore Mark made no mistake in thus writing some things as he remembered them. For of one thing he took especial care, not to omit anything he had heard, and not to put anything fictional into the statements.usebius, Ecclesiastical History, 3.39.1416

Also Irenaeus wrote about this tradition:

After their (Peter and Paul's) passing, Mark also, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, transmitted to us in writing the things preached by Peter. (Irenaeus, Against Heresies, III. 1.2.; quoted by Eusebius in Ecclesiastical History, book 5, 7.6)

Based on these quotes, and on the Christian tradition, the information in Mark's Gospel about St. Peter would be based on eyewitness material. It should be noted, however, that some scholars (for differing reasons) dispute the attribution of the Gospel of Mark to its traditional author. The gospel itself is anonymous, and the above passages are the oldest surviving written testimony to its authorship.

Pseudepigrapha and apocrypha

There are also a number of other apocryphal writings that have been either attributed to or written about St. Peter. They were from antiquity regarded as pseudepigrapha.[citation needed] These include:

Gospel of Peter, a Docetic narrative that has survived in part

Acts of Peter

Acts of Peter and Andrew

Acts of Peter and Paul

Acts of Peter and the Twelve

Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter

A Letter of Peter to Philip, which was preserved in the Nag Hammadi library

Apocalypse of Peter, which was considered as genuine by many Christians as late as the fourth century

The Epistula Petri, the introductory letter ascribed to Apostle Peter that appears at the beginning of at least one version of the Clementine literature

Popular culture

Over the years "St. Peter" has evolved into a stock character that is now widely used in jokes, cartoons, comedies, dramas, and plays. Such caricatures almost all play upon Peter's role as the "keeper of the keys of the kingdom of heaven" in Matthew 16:19, on the basis of which he is often depicted as an elderly, bearded man who sits at the pearly gates that serve as heaven's main entrance, and acting as a sort of hotel-style doorman / bouncer who personally interviews prospective entrants into Heaven, often seated behind a desk, or standing at a lectern.

In traditional Medieval iconography, Peter is a bald man with a long beard. He usually has one or more large keys in his hand or hanging from his belt.

In the South Park episode "Fantastic Easter Special" he was portrayed as being a rabbit (Peter Rabbit) because Jesus knew no human could speak for all Christianity as Pope without any acts of corruption, and that rabbits were pure, tolerant, and incorruptible.

Patronage

Saint Peter is the patron saint of the following categories[citation needed]

Workers

Bakers

Bridge builders

Butchers

Fishermen

Harvesters

Cordwainers

Horologists

Locksmiths

Cobblers

Masons

Net makers

The Papacy

Shipwrights

Called for aid in

Frenzy

Foot problems

Fever

Longevity

Institutions

Bath Abbey

Berchtesgaden Provostry

Bishop Cotton Boys' School, Bangalore

Exeter College, Oxford

Universal Church

Peterhouse, Cambridge

St Peter's College, Oxford

St Peter's College, Auckland

Locations

Birebbua

Bremen

Brgy. San Pedro, San Pablo City

Worms

Calatrava

Chartres

Chimbote

Calbayog City

Cologne

Davao

Dunajsk Streda

Jackson

Kpenick

Las Vegas

Leuven

Leiden

Lessines

Maralal

Marquette

Moissac

Naumburg

Obermarsberg

Peterborough

Philadelphia

Pozna

Providence

Pubnico, Nova Scotia

Regensburg

Rome

Pvoa de Varzim

Saint Petersburg

San Pedro Soloma

Scranton

Sunderland

Sint-Pieters-Rode

Tielt

Toa Baja

Umbria

Holy relics

Pius XII ordered archaeological excavations under St Peter's Basilica in Rome to determine whether the tomb of St Peter was there. At the conclusion of the Holy Year in 1950 he confirmed that the tomb of Peter had been found underneath the basilica

Pope Vitalian sent filings from Apostle Peter's chains to Oswy, King of Northumbria in the seventh century.

Peter's remains continue to be subject of investigation, but his tomb is located under Saint Peter's Basilica in the Vatican, which was announced by Pope Pius XII on Christmas Day in 1950 after years of painstaking research.

Revisionist views

Many Protestant scholars accept the traditional story of Peter's martyrdom in Rome. Some Protestants, however, have rejected Peter's martyrdom as a later invention, arguing that evidence of Peter exists only in Biblical accounts.

It has also been claimed that there was a serious division between Peter's Jewish Christian party and Paul's Hellenizing party, seen in e.g. the Incident at Antioch, which later Christian accounts have downplayed.

Another revisionist view was developed by supporters of the Christ myth theory, which holds that the figure of Peter is largely a development from some mythological doorkeeper figures. If there was a historical Peter then all that is known about him is the brief mentions in Galatians.

See also

Saints portal

St. Peter's Basilica

St Peter's Square

The Big Fisherman

San Pietro in Vincoli

Saint Peter's tomb

Sword of Saint Peter

Quo Vadis

Notes

^ Bible Lexicon

^  "Fathers of the Church". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Fathers_of_the_Church. .

^ Thomas Patrick Halton, On Illustrious Men, v. 100, CUA Press, 1999, pp 5 - 7 ISBN 0813201004.

^ The Early Church Fathers Chapter 1

^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Peter, St. " F. L., Cross, The Oxford dictionary of the Christian Church, Oxford University Press, 2005

^ His father's name is given as 'Jonah',[Jn. 1:42] [Matt. 16:17] although some manuscripts of John give his father's name as John.

^ Harrington, Daniel J. "Peter the Rock." America, August 1825, 2008. Accessed Oct. 9, 2009: p. 30.

^ Rienecker, Fritz; Rogers, Cleon (1976), Linguistic key to the Greek New Testament, Grand Rapids MI: Regency Reference Library (Zondervan Publishing House), p. 49, ISBN 0-310-32050-X 

^ "Saint Peter the Apostle." Encyclopdia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopdia Britannica Online. 25 Nov. 2009 .

^ Matt. 10:2-4, Mk. 3:16-19, Lk. 6:14-16

^ a b c Sermon by Leo the Great (440-461)

^ Archbishop Stylianos of Australia

^ Patriarch H.H.Ignatius Zakka I Iwas

^ Identity of the Syriac Orthodox Church

^ http://cbi.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/5/1/73.pdf

^ http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm [Church History Book II, Chapter I, quoting Clement of Alexandria's Sixth book of Hypotyposes]

^ Matt. 26:51, Mk. 14:47, Lk. 22:50

^ a b May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977.

^ 1Cor 15

^ 1Cor 15:3-7

^ See Matthew 28:8-10, John 20:16 and Luke 24:13-16.

^ Brodie, T. L. (1997). The Gospel according to John a literary and theological commentary. New York: Oxford University Press. pg. 574

^ John Vidmar, The Catholic Church through the ages: a history. pp. 39-40

^ a b c d Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.

^ Louise Ropes Loomis, The Book of Popes (Liber Pontificalis). Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 1-889758-86-8 (Reprint of the 1916 edition).

^ This is provided in Downey, A History of Antioch, pp. 583586. This evidence is accepted by M. Lapidge, among others, see Bischoff and Lapidge, Biblical Commentaries from the Canterbury School (Cambridge, 1994) p. 16. Lastly, see Finegan, The Archaeology of the New Testament, pp. 6371.

^ "Jesus said this to indicate the kind of death by which Peter would glorify God" ([Jn. 21:19]).

^ Walsh, The Bones of St. Peter: A 1st Full Account of the Search for the Apostle's Body

^ Finegan, The Archeology of the New Testament, pp. 368370.

^ http://www.saintpetersbasilica.org/Necropolis/JW/TheBonesofStPeter-1.htm The Bones of St. Peter

^ "Irenaeus Against Heresies 3.3.2". http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.iv.html. "...[the] Church founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul; as also [by pointing out] the faith preached to men, which comes down to our time by means of the successions of the bishops. ...The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church, committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate." 

^ In Against Heresies (Book III, Chapter III, paragraphs 23), Irenaeus wrote:

Since, however, it would be too long to enumerate in such a volume as this the succession of all the churches, we shall confound all those who, in whatever manner, whether through self-satisfaction or vainglory, or through blindness and wicked opinion, assemble other than where it is proper, by pointing out here the successions of the bishops of the greatest and most ancient church known to all, founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul, that church which has the tradition and the faith which comes down to us after having been announced to men by the apostles. With that church, because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree, that is, all the faithful in the whole world, and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition.

The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church, committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate. Of this Linus, Paul makes mention in the Epistles to Timothy. To him succeeded Anacletus; and after him, in the third place from the apostles, Clement was allotted the bishopric. This man, as he had seen the blessed apostles, and had been conversant with them, might be said to have the preaching of the apostles still echoing [in his ears], and their traditions before his eyes. Nor was he alone [in this], for there were many still remaining who had received instructions from the apostles. In the time of this Clement, no small dissension having occurred among the brethren at Corinth, the Church in Rome dispatched a most powerful letter to the Corinthians, exhorting them to peace, renewing their faith, and declaring the tradition which it had lately received from the apostles

^ (Letter to Pope Soter A.D. 170, in Eusebius, History of the Church 2:25:8)

^ The evidence that Peter was "bishop" of Rome is corroborated by both positive and "negative" evidence. Positively, Clement's letter to the Corinthians situates Peter in Rome by mentioning his death there. Ignatius of Antioch writes to the Romans and says, "I do not command you as Peter and Paul...