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Saturday, April 24, 2010
Monson
Mars Science Laboratory
China Product
Goals and objectives
The MSL has four goals: To determine if life ever arose on Mars, to characterize the climate of Mars, to characterize the geology of Mars, and to prepare for human exploration. To contribute to the four science goals and meet its specific goal of determining Mars' habitability, Mars Science Laboratory has eight scientific objectives:
Determine the nature and inventory of organic carbon compounds. driveway motion detector
Inventory the chemical building blocks of life as we know it: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus and sulfur. baby movement sensor
Identify features that may represent the effects of biological processes. optical rotary encoder
Investigate the chemical, isotopic, and mineralogical composition of the Martian surface and near-surface geological materials.
Interpret the processes that have formed and modified rocks and soils.
Assess long-timescale (i.e., 4-billion-year) Martian atmospheric evolution processes.
Determine present state, distribution, and cycling of water and carbon dioxide.
Characterize the broad spectrum of surface radiation, including galactic radiation, cosmic radiation, solar proton events and secondary neutrons.
History
The MSL after a successful test of the suspension system by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory on August 20, 2008
In September 2006, MSL was approved by NASA for a 2009 launch.
In April 2008, it was reported that the project was $235 million USD, or 24% over budget and that the money to compensate this overrun may have to come from other NASA Mars missions.
In October 2008, MSL was getting closer to a 30% cost overrun.
On November 19, 2008, NASA announced that MSL project leaders at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) had reduced the list of candidate landing sites to four: Eberswalde, Gale, Holden, Mawrth.
As of November 2008, development is essentially finished, much of MSL hardware and software are complete and testing is ongoing.
On December 3, 2008, NASA announced that the MSL launch will be delayed until the fall of 2011 because of inadequate test time. The technical and budgetary reasons behind the delay were explained to the Planetary Science Community in a January 2009 meeting at NASA Headquarters.
From March 2329, 2009, the general public had an opportunity to rank nine finalist names through a public poll on the NASA website as additional input for judges to consider during the MSL name selection process. On May 27, 2009, the winning name of Curiosity, which was submitted by a sixth-grader, Clara Ma, from Kansas was chosen.
Specifications
MSL mockup compared with the Mars Exploration Rover and Sojourner rover by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory on May 12, 2008
A comparison of sizes for the Sojourner rover, the Mars Exploration Rovers, the Phoenix Lander and the Mars Science Laboratory.
The MSL Assembly, Test and Launch Operations (ATLO) in the Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Wheel size comparison: Sojourner, Mars Exploration Rover, Mars Science Laboratory
Length/weight
The MSL will have a length of 9 feet (2.7 m) and weigh 1,984 pounds (900 kg) including 176 pounds (80 kg) of scientific instruments. It will be the same size as a Mini Cooper automobile. This compares to the Mars Exploration Rovers which have a length of 5 feet 2 inches (1.57 m) and weigh 384 pounds (174 kg) including 15 pounds (6.8 kg) of scientific instruments.
Speed
Once on the surface, the MSL rover will be able to roll over obstacles approaching 75 centimeters (30 in) high. Maximum terrain-traverse speed is estimated to be 90 meters (300 ft) per hour via automatic navigation, however, average traverse speeds will likely be about 30 meters (100 ft) per hour, based on variables including power levels, difficulty of the terrain, slippage, and visibility. MSL is expected to traverse a minimum of 12 miles (19 km) in its two-year mission.
Power source
The MSL will be powered by radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs), as used by the successful Mars landers Viking 1 and Viking 2 in 1976. Radioisotope power systems are generators that produce electricity from the natural decay of plutonium-238, which is a non-weapons-grade form of that radioisotope used in power systems for NASA spacecraft. Heat given off by the natural decay of this isotope is converted into electricity, providing constant power during all seasons and through the day and night, and waste heat can be used via pipes to warm systems, freeing electrical power for the operation of the vehicle and instruments.
The MSL power source will use the latest RTG generation built by Boeing, called the "Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator" (MMRTG). The MMRTG is a flexible and compact power system under development that is based on conventional RTGs. The MMRTG is designed to produce 125 watts of electrical power at the start of the mission and 100 watts after 14 years. The MSL will generate 2.5 kilowatt hours per day compared to the Mars Exploration Rovers which can generate about 0.6 kilowatt hours per day. Although the primary mission is planned to last about 2 Earth years, the MMRTG will have a minimum lifetime of 14 years.
Heat Rejection System
The temperatures in the potential areas that the MSL might land at can vary from +86F to 197F (+30 to 127C). Therefore, the Heat Rejection System (HRS) uses fluid pumped through 200 feet of tubes in the MSL body so that sensitive components are kept at optimal temperatures. Other methods of heating the internal components include using radiated heat generated from the components in the craft itself, as well as excess heat from the MMRTG unit. The HRS also has the ability to cool components if necessary.
Computers
See also: Comparison of embedded computer systems on board the Mars rovers
The two identical on-board rover computers, called "Rover Electronics Module" (REM), contain radiation hardened memory to tolerate the extreme radiation environment from space and to safeguard against power-off cycles. Each computer's memory includes 256 kB of EEPROM, 256 MB of DRAM, and 2 GB of flash memory. This compares to 3 MB of EEPROM, 128 MB of DRAM, and 256 MB of flash memory used in the Mars Exploration Rovers.
The REM computers use the RAD750 CPU which is a successor to the RAD6000 CPU used in the Mars Exploration Rovers. The RAD750 CPU is capable of up to 400 MIPS while the RAD6000 CPU is capable of up to 35 MIPS.
The rover has an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) that provides 3-axis information on its position which is used in rover navigation. The rover's computers are constantly self-monitoring itself to keep the rover operational, such as by regulating the rover's temperature. Activities such as taking pictures, driving, and operating the instruments are performed in a command sequence that is sent from the flight team to the rover. In the event of problems with the main computer, the backup computer will take over.
Proposed payload
At present, 10 instruments have been selected for development or production for the Mars Science Laboratory rover:
Cameras (MastCam, MAHLI, MARDI)
The MastCam, MAHLI, and MARDI cameras are being developed by Malin Space Science Systems and they all share common design components, such as on-board electronic imaging processing boxes, 1600x1200 CCDs, and a RGB Bayer pattern filter.
MastCam: This system will provide multiple spectra and true color imaging with two cameras. The cameras can take true color images at 1200x1200 pixels and up to 10 frames per second hardware-compressed, high-definition video at 720p (1280x720). One camera will be the Medium Angle Camera (MAC) which has a 34 mm focal length, a 15 degree field of view, and can yield 22 cm/pixel scale at 1 km. The other camera will be the Narrow Angle Camera (NAC) which has a 100 mm focal length, a 5.1-degree field of view, and can yield 7.4 cm/pixel scale at 1 km. Each camera will have 8 GB of flash memory, which is capable of storing over 5,500 raw images, and can apply real time lossless or JPEG compression. The cameras have an autofocus capability which allows them to focus on objects from 2.1 meters (6.9 ft) to infinity. Each camera will also have a RGB Bayer pattern filter with 8 filter positions. In comparison to the 1024x1024 black & white panoramic cameras used on the Mars Exploration Rover (MER) the MAC MastCam will have 1.25X higher spatial resolution and the NAC MastCam will have 3.67X higher spatial resolution.
Mars Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI): This system will consist of a camera mounted to a robotic arm on the rover. It will be used to acquire microscopic images of rock and soil. MAHLI can take true color images at 1600x1200 pixels with a resolution as high as 14.5 micrometers per pixel. MAHLI has a 18.3 mm to 21.3 mm focal length and a 33.8 to 38.5 degree field of view. MAHLI will have both white and UV LED illumination for imaging in darkness or imaging fluorescence. MAHLI will also have mechanical focusing in a range from infinite to mm distances. MAHLI can store either the raw images or do real time lossless predictive or JPEG compression.
MSL Mars Descent Imager (MARDI): During the descent to the Martian surface, MARDI will take color images at 1600x1200 pixels with a 1.3 millisecond exposure time starting at distances of about 3.7 km to near 5 meters from the ground and will take images at a rate of 5 frames per second for about 2 minutes. MARDI has a pixel scale of 1.5 meters at 2 km to 1.5 millimeters at 2 meters and has a 90 degree circular field of view. MARDI will have 8 GB of internal buffer memory which is capable of storing over 4,000 raw images. MARDI imaging will allow the mapping of surrounding terrain and the location of landing.
ChemCam
ChemCam is a suite of remote sensing instruments, including the first laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) system to be used for planetary science and a remote micro-imager (RMI). The LIBS instrument can target a rock or soil sample from up to 7 meters away, vaporizing a small amount of it and then collecting a spectrum of the light emitted by the vaporized rock. An infrared laser with 1067 nm wavelength and a 5 nanosecond pulse will focus on a sub-millimeter spot with a power in excess of 10 megawatts, depositing 15mJ of energy. Detection of the ball of luminous plasma will be done in the visible and near-UV and near-IR range, between 240 nm and 800 nm. Using the same collection optics, the RMI provides context images of the LIBS analysis spots. The RMI resolves 1 mm objects at 10 m distance, and has a field of view covering 20 cm at that distance. The ChemCam instrument suite is being developed by the Los Alamos National Laboratory and the French CESR laboratory. NASA's cost for ChemCam is approximately $10M, including an overrun of about $1.5M , a very tiny fraction of the total mission costs. The flight model of the Mast Unit was delivered from the French CNES to Los Alamos National Laboratory and was able to deliver the engineering model to JPL in February 2008.
Alpha-particle X-ray spectrometer (APXS)
Main article: APXS
This device will irradiate samples with alpha particles and map the spectra of X-rays that are reemitted for determining the elemental composition of samples. It is being developed by the Canadian Space Agency. The APXS is a form of PIXE, which has previously been used by the Mars Pathfinder and the Mars Exploration Rovers.
CheMin
Chemin stands for "Chemistry and Mineralogy" and is a X-Ray Diffraction/X-Ray Fluorescence Instrument. CheMin is a X-ray diffraction/X-ray fluorescence instrument that will quantify minerals and mineral structure of samples. It is being developed by Dr. David Blake at NASA Ames Research Center and the NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM)
The SAM instrument suite will analyze organics and gases from both atmospheric and solid samples. It is being developed by the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, the Laboratoire Inter-Universitaire des Systmes Atmosphriques (LISA) of France's CNRS and Honeybee Robotics, along with many additional external partners. The SAM suite consists of three instruments:
Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer (QMS)
Gas Chromatograph (GC)
Tunable Laser Spectrometer (TLS)
The Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer (QMS) will detect gases sampled from the atmosphere or those released from solid samples by heating. The Gas Chromatograph (GC) will be used to separate out individual gases from a complex mixture into molecular components with a mass range of 2235 u. The Tunable Laser Spectrometer (TLS) will perform precision measurements of oxygen and carbon isotope ratios in carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) in the atmosphere of Mars in order to distinguish between a geochemical and a biological origin.
The SAM also has three subsystems: The Chemical Separation and Processing Laboratory (CSPL), for enrichment and derivatization of the organic molecules of the sample; the Sample Manipulation System (SMS) for transporting powder delivered from the MSL drill to a SAM inlet and into one of 74 sample cups. The SMS then moves the sample to the SAM oven to release gases by heating to up to 1000 oC; and the Wide Range Pumps (WRP) subsystem to purge the QMS, TLS, and the CPSL.
Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD)
This instrument will characterize the broad spectrum of radiation found near the surface of Mars for purposes of determining the viability and shielding needs for human explorers. Funded by the Exploration Systems Mission Directorate at NASA Headquarters and developed by Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) and the extraterrestrial physics group at Christian-Albrechts-Universitt zu Kiel, Germany.
Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons (DAN)
A pulsed neutron source and detector for measuring hydrogen or ice and water at or near the Martian surface, provided by the Russian Federal Space Agency.
Rover Environmental Monitoring Station (REMS)
Meteorological package and an ultraviolet sensor provided by the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science. It will be mounted on the camera mast and measure atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind currents and direction, air and ground temperature and ultraviolet radiation levels.
MSL Entry Descent and Landing Instrumentation (MEDLI)
The MEDLI project main objective is to measure aerothermal environments, sub-surface heat shield material response, vehicle orientation, and atmospheric density for the atmospheric entry through the sensible atmosphere down to heat shield separation of the Mars Science Laboratory entry vehicle. The MEDLI instrumentation suite will be installed in the heatshield of the MSL entry vehicle. The acquired data will support future Mars missions by providing measured atmospheric data to validate Mars atmosphere models and clarify the design margins on future Mars missions. MEDLI instrumentation consists of three main subsystems: MEDLI Integrated Sensor Plugs (MISP), Mars Entry Atmospheric Data System (MEADS) and the Sensor Support Electronics (SSE).
Hazard Avoidance Cameras (Hazcams)
The MSL will use four pairs of black and white navigation cameras located on the front left and right and rear left and right of the rover. The Hazard Avoidance Cameras (also called Hazcams) are used for autonomous hazard avoidance during rover drives and for safe positioning of the robotic arm on rocks and soils. The cameras will use visible light to capture three-dimensional (3-D) imagery. The cameras have a 120 degree field of view and map the terrain at up to 10 feet (3 meters) in front of the rover. This imagery safeguards against the rover inadvertently crashing into unexpected obstacles, and works in tandem with software that allows the rover to make its own safety choices.
Navigation Cameras (Navcams)
The MSL will use two pairs of black and white navigation cameras mounted on the mast to support ground navigation. The cameras will use visible light to capture three-dimensional (3-D) imagery. The cameras have a 45 degree field of view.
Launch vehicle
The MSL will be launched using the Atlas V 541 which is a two stage rocket capable of launching up to 17,597 pounds (8,672 kg) to geostationary transfer orbit. The Atlas V has also been used to launch the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter and New Horizons.
Landing system
MSL landing diagram for outside Martian atmosphere and for entry.
MSL landing diagram for parachute descent, powered descent, and sky crane.
Landing a large mass on Mars is a difficult challenge: the atmosphere is thick enough to prevent rockets being used to provide significant deceleration, but too thin for parachutes and aerobraking alone to be effective. Although some previous missions have used airbags to cushion the shock of landing, the MSL is too large for this to be an option.
It is planned that the MSL will perform the first-ever precision landing on Mars by demonstrating the ability to land within a predetermined 20 km (12.4 miles) landing ellipse. For this, the MSL will employ a combination of several systems in a precise order, where the entry, descent and landing sequence will break down into four parts.
Guided entry - The MSL will be set down on the Martian surface using a new high-precision entry, descent, and landing (EDL) system that will place it in a 20 kilometer (12 mile) landing ellipse, in contrast to the 150 kilometer by 20 kilometer (about 93 miles by 12 miles) landing ellipse of the landing systems used by the Mars Exploration Rovers. The rover is folded up within an aeroshell which protects it during the travel through space and during the atmospheric entry at Mars. Much of the reduction of the landing precision error is accomplished by an entry guidance algorithm, similar to that used by the astronauts returning to Earth in the Apollo space program. This guidance uses the lifting force experienced by the aeroshell to "fly out" any detected error in range and thereby arrive at the targeted landing site. In order for the aeroshell to have lift, its center of mass is offset from the axial centerline which results in an off-center trim angle in atmospheric flight, again similar to the Apollo Command Module. This is accomplished by a series of ejectable ballast masses. The lift vector is controlled by four sets of two Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters that produce approximately 500 N of thrust per pair. This ability to change the pointing of the direction of lift allows the spacecraft to react to the ambient environment, and steer toward the landing zone.
The MSL test parachute. Note the people in the lower-right corner of the image.
Parachute descent - Like Viking, Mars Pathfinder and the Mars Exploration Rovers, the Mars Science Laboratory will be slowed by a large parachute. After the entry phase is complete and the capsule has slowed to Mach 2, a supersonic parachute is deployed. The entry vehicle must first eject the ballast mass such that the center of gravity offset is removed. In March and April 2009 the parachute for the MSL was tested in the world's largest wind tunnel and passed flight-qualification testing. The parachute has 80 suspension lines, is over 165 feet (50 meters) long, and is about 51 feet (16 meters) in diameter. The parachute is capable of being deployed at Mach 2.2 and can generate up to 65,000 pounds of drag force in the Martian atmosphere.
Powered descent - Following the parachute braking, the rover and descent stage drop out of the aeroshell. The descent stage is a platform above the rover with variable thrust mono propellant hydrazine rocket thrusters on arms extending around this platform to slow the descent. Meanwhile, the rover itself is being transformed from its stowed flight configuration to a landing configuration while being lowered beneath the descent stage by the "sky crane" system.
Sky Crane - Like a large crane on Earth, the sky crane system will lower the rover to a "soft landing"heels downn the surface of Mars. This consists of 3 bridles lowering the rover itself and an umbilical cable carrying electrical signals between the descent stage and rover. At roughly 7.5 meters below the descent stage the "sky crane" system slows to a halt and the rover touches down. After the rover touches down it waits 2 seconds to confirm that it is on solid ground and fires several pyros (small explosive devices) activating cable cutters on the bridle and umbilical cords to free itself from the descent stage. The descent stage promptly flies away to a crash landing, and the rover gets ready to roam Mars. The planned "sky crane" powered descent landing system has never been used in actual missions before.
Proposed landing sites
The essential issue when selecting an optimum landing site, is to identify a particular geologic environment, or set of environments, that would support microbial life. To mitigate the risk of disappointment and ensure the greatest chance for science success, interest is placed at the greatest number of possible science objectives at a chosen landing site. Thus, a landing site with morphologic and mineralogic evidence for past water, is better than a site with just one of these criteria. Furthermore, a site with spectra indicating multiple hydrated minerals is preferred; clay minerals and sulfate salts would constitute a rich site. Hematite, other iron oxides, sulfate minerals, silicate minerals, silica, and possibly chloride minerals have all been suggested as possible substrates for fossil preservation. Indeed, all are known to facilitate the preservation of fossil morphologies and molecules on Earth. Difficult terrain is the best candidate for finding evidence of livable conditions, and engineers must be sure the rover can safely reach the site and drive within it.
The current engineering constraints call for a landing site less than 45 from the Martian equator, and less than 1 km above the reference datum. At the first MSL Landing Site workshop, 33 potential landing sites were identified. By the second workshop in late 2007, the list had grown to include almost 50 sites, and by the end of the workshop, the list was reduced to six; in November 2008, project leaders at a third workshop reduced the list to four landing sites.
On August 20, 2009, NASA sent out a call for additional landing site proposals. The new proposals will be evaluated and reviewed until the summer of 2010. A fourth landing site workshop, taking both the new and existing proposals into account, is planned for September 2010. The fifth and final workshop is planned for March 2011.
Current prospective landing sites
Name
Location
Eberswalde Crater Delta
24.0S, 327.0E
Holden Crater Fan
26.4S, 325.3E
Gale Crater
4.6S, 137.2E
Mawrth Vallis
24.0N, 341.0E
See also
Mars portal
Spaceflight portal
Robotics portal
ExoMars lander
MAX-C rover
Exploration of Mars
Life on Mars
Mars rover
Rover (space exploration)
References
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^ a b c "MSL Science Corner: Chemistry & Mineralogy (CheMin)". NASA/JPL. http://msl-scicorner.jpl.nasa.gov/Instruments/CheMin/. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
^ Sarrazin P., Blake D., Feldman S., Chipera S., Vaniman D., Bish D. (2005). "Field deployment of a portable X-ray diffraction/X-ray flourescence instrument on Mars analog terrain". Powder Diffraction 20 (2): 128133. doi:10.1154/1.1913719.
^ a b c d e f g "MSL Science Corner: Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM)". NASA/JPL. http://msl-scicorner.jpl.nasa.gov/Instruments/SAM/. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
^ Overview of the SAM instrument suite
^ Cabane M., Coll P., Szopa C., Israel G., Raulin F., Sternberg R., Mahaffy P., Person A., Rodier C., Navarro-Gonzalez R., Niemann H., Harpold D., Brinckerhoff W. (2004). "Did life exist on Mars? Search for organic and inorganic signatures, one of the goals for "SAM" (sample analysis at Mars)". Source: Mercury, Mars and Saturn Advances in Space Research 33 (12): 22402245.
^ a b "Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) Instrument Suite". NASA. October 2008. http://ael.gsfc.nasa.gov/marsSAM.shtml. Retrieved 2008-10-09.
^ Tenenbaum, David (June 09, 2008):). "Making Sense of Mars Methane". Astrobiology Magazine. http://www.astrobio.net/news/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=2765&mode=thread&order=0&thold=0. Retrieved 2008-10-08.
^ Tarsitano, C.G. and Webster, C.R. (2007). "Multilaser Herriott cell for planetary tunable laser spectrometers". Applied Optics, 46 (28): 69236935. doi:10.1364/AO.46.006923.
^ Tom Kennedy and Erik Mumm, Tom Myrick , Seth Frader-Thompson. "OPTIMIZATION OF A MARS SAMPLE MANIPULATION SYSTEM THROUGH CONCENTRATED FUNCTIONALITY" (PDF). http://pdf.aiaa.org/preview/CDReadyMSPACE06_1393/PV2006_7402.pdf.
^ a b "MSL Science Corner: Radiation Assessment Detector (RAD)". NASA/JPL. http://msl-scicorner.jpl.nasa.gov/Instruments/RAD/. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
^ "MSL Science Corner: Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons (DAN)". NASA/JPL. http://msl-scicorner.jpl.nasa.gov/Instruments/DAN/. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
^ a b "MSL Science Corner: Rover Environmental Monitoring Station (REMS)". NASA/JPL. http://msl-scicorner.jpl.nasa.gov/Instruments/REMS/. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
^ a b c d Michael Wright (2007-05-01). "Science Overview System Design Review (SDR)". NASA/JPL. http://www.mrc.uidaho.edu/~atkinson/SeniorDesign/ThermEx/MEDLI/MEDLI_SDR_Project_Overview.pdf. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
^ a b c d Michael Wright (2007-05-01). "Science Overview System Design Review (SDR)". NASA/JPL. http://www.mrc.uidaho.edu/~atkinson/SeniorDesign/ThermEx/MEDLI/MEDLI_SDR_Science_Overview.pdf. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
^ a b c d e "Mars Science Laboratory: Mission: Rover: Eyes and Other Senses: Four Engineering Hazcams (Hazard Avoidance Cameras)". NASA/JPL. http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/mission/rover/eyesandother/. Retrieved 2009-04-04.
^ a b "Mars Science Laboratory Rover in the JPL Mars Yard". NASA/JPL. http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/multimedia/interactives/photosynth/. Retrieved 2009-05-10.
^ a b c "Mars Science Laboratory: Mission: Rover: Eyes and Other Senses: Two Engineering Navcams (Navigation Cameras)". NASA/JPL. http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/mission/rover/eyesandother/. Retrieved 2009-04-04.
^ "Mars Science Laboratory: Mission: Launch Vehicle". NASA/JPL. http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/mission/launchvehicle/. Retrieved 2009-04-01.
^ "The Mars Landing Approach: Getting Large Payloads to the Surface of the Red Planet". Universe Today. http://www.universetoday.com/2007/07/17/the-mars-landing-approach-getting-large-payloads-to-the-surface-of-the-red-planet/. Retrieved 2008-10-21.
^ "Mission Timeline: Entry, Descent, and Landing". NASA and JPL. http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/mission/tl_edl.html. Retrieved 2008-10-07.
^ "Mars Science Laboratory Entry, Descent, and Landing Triggers". IEEE. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=04161341. Retrieved 2008-10-21.
^ a b c d "Entry, Descent, and Landing". NASA/JPL. http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/mission/timeline/edl/index.html. Retrieved 2009-09-07.
^ a b c "Mars Science Laboratory Parachute Qualification Testing". NASA/JPL. http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/news/index.cfm?FuseAction=ShowNews&NewsID=90. Retrieved 2009-04-15.
^ Sky crane concept video
^ "Landing Discussion Points and Science Criteria" (Microsoft Word), MSL Landing Sites Workshop, July 15, http://marsoweb.nas.nasa.gov/landingsites/msl2009/memoranda/sites_jul08/Discussion%20Points-Science%20Criteria.doc, retrieved 2008-10-21
^ "Survivor: Mars Seven Possible MSL Landing Sites". Jet Propulsion Laboratory (NASA). 18 September 2008. http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/spotlight/20080918.html. Retrieved 2008-10-21.
^ "MSL Workshop Summary" (pdf). 2007-04-27. http://marsoweb.nas.nasa.gov/landingsites/msl/workshops/1st_workshop/docs/MSL_workshop_summary.pdf. Retrieved 2007-05-29.
^ "MSL Landing Site Selection User Guide to Engineering Constraints" (pdf). 2006-06-12. http://marsoweb.nas.nasa.gov/landingsites/msl/memoranda/MSL_Eng_User_Guide_v3.pdf. Retrieved 2007-05-29.
^ "Second MSL Landing Site Workshop". http://marsoweb.nas.nasa.gov/landingsites/msl2009/workshops/2nd_workshop/2nd_announcement.html.
^ "MSL Workshop Voting Chart" (PDF). September 18, 2008. http://marsoweb.nas.nasa.gov/landingsites/msl2009/workshops/3rd_workshop/talks/MSL_Wkshp3_vote_chart.pdf.
^ GuyMac. "Reconnaissance of MSL Sites". HiBlog. http://hirise.lpl.arizona.edu/HiBlog/?p=131. Retrieved 2008-10-21.
^ "Mars Exploration Science Monthly Newsletter" (PDF). August 1, 2008. http://mepag.jpl.nasa.gov/calendar/MEPAG_Newsletter(08_19C3B3.pdf.
^ "Site List Narrows For NASA's Next Mars Landing". MarsToday.com. 2008-11-19. http://www.marstoday.com/news/viewpr.rss.html?pid=26970. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
^ http://marsoweb.nas.nasa.gov/landingsites/msl/memoranda/Call_for_new_MSL_Site_8-20-09.doc
^ http://mepag.jpl.nasa.gov/calendar/Mars_Explor_Sci_Monthly_Newsltr_12-09.pdf
^ "Mars Exploration Program Landing Sites". NASA. http://marsoweb.nas.nasa.gov/landingsites/index.html. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
^ "Looking at Landing Sites for the Mars Science Laboratory". YouTube. NASA/JPL. 2009-05-27. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sfYK8r6tlrg. Retrieved 2009-05-28.
^ "Final 7 Prospective Landing Sites". NASA. February 19, 2009. http://marsoweb.nas.nasa.gov/landingsites/index.html. Retrieved 2009-02-09.
Further reading
M. K. Lockwood (2006). "Introduction: Mars Science Laboratory: The Next Generation of Mars Landers And The Following 13 articles " (PDF). Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets 43 (2): 257257. doi:10.2514/1.20678. http://pdf.aiaa.org/jaPreview/JSR/2006/PVJA20678.pdf.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Mars Science Laboratory
MSL Home Page
Send Your Name to Mars
JPL's Mars Technology Program site
Short description of the Entry, Descent and Landing (EDL) system. (PDF)
MSL Entry, Descent and Landing system video Located on YouTube.
Demo of the MSL rover, reported by The Planetary Society.
See Curiosity Virtual Tour
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Categories: Spacecraft | Mars spacecraft | Unmanned spacecraft | Mars exploration | NASA probes | Planetary rovers | Mars Exploration Rover | 2011 in spaceflightHidden categories: Future spaceflights
British Agricultural Revolution
China Product
Enclosure
Main article: Enclosure
See also: Common land christmas stocking hangers
Prior to the 18th century, agriculture had been much the same across Europe since the Middle Ages. The open field system was essentially post-feudal, with each farmer subsistence-cropping strips of land in one of three or four large fields held in common and splitting up the products likewise. battery operated lantern
Beginning as early as the 12th century, some of the common fields in Britain were enclosed into individually owned fields, and the process rapidly accelerated in the 15th and 16th centuries. This led to farmers losing their land and their grazing rights and left many unemployed. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the practice of enclosure was denounced by the Church, and legislation was drawn up against it; but the developments in agricultural mechanization during the 18th century required large, enclosed fields in order to be workable. This led to a series of government acts, culminating in the General enclosure Act of 1801, which sanctioned large-scale land reform. string lights decorative
While small farmers received compensation for their strips, it was minimal, while the loss of rights for the rural population led to reduction in their diets and an increased dependency on the Poor law. Surveying and legal costs weighed heavily on poor farmers, who sometimes even had to sell their share of the land to pay for its being split up. Only a few found work in the (increasingly mechanized) enclosed farms for good. Many relocated to the cities or colonies to try to find their fortune or work in the emerging factories of the Industrial Revolution.
By the end of the 18th century the process of enclosure was largely complete.
Mechanization
Jethro Tull made early advancements in agricultural technology with his seed drill (1701)(which was invented in China in the 4th century BCE) a mechanical seeder which distributed seeds efficiently across a plot of land. It took a century and a half after the publication in 1731 of his Horse hoeing husbandry for farmers to widely adopt the technology. (However, although a pioneer in Europe, Tull was not the first to invent a seed drill; its origins can be traced back thousands of years to the East and Asia.)
Joseph Foljambe's Rotherham plough of 1730, while not the first iron plough, was the first iron plough to have any commercial success in Europe, combining an earlier Dutch design with a number of technological innovations. Its fittings and coulter were made of iron and the mouldboard and share were covered with an iron plate making it lighter to pull and more controllable than previous ploughs. It remained in use in Britain until the development of the tractor. It was followed by John Small of Doncaster and Berwickshire in 1763, whose 'Scots Plough' used an improved cast iron share to turn the soil more effectively with less draft, wear, or strain on the ploughing team.
The Leader of the luddites, engraving of 1812
Andrew Meikle's threshing machine of 1786 was the final straw for many farm labourers, and led to the 1830 agricultural rebellion of Captain Swing (a probably mythical character comparable to the Luddite's Ned Ludd).
An agricultural engine, towing a living van and a water cart:
Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies Ltd 6nhp Jubilee of 1908
In the 1850s and '60s John Fowler, an agricultural engineer, pioneered the use of steam engines for ploughing and digging drainage channels.
Three-field crop rotation
Main article: Three-field crop rotation
During the Middle Ages, the open field system had employed a three year crop rotation, with a different crop in each of two fields, eg. wheat and barley, and with the third field fallow. Over the following two centuries, the regular planting of legumes in the fields which were previously fallow slowly increased the fertility of croplands. The planting of legumes helped to increase plant growth in the empty field due to their ability to fix nitrogen in the soil. Other crops that were occasionally grown were flax and members of the mustard family. The farmers in Flanders (in parts of France and current day Belgium) discovered a still more effective four-field rotation system, using turnips and clover (a legume) to replace the fallow year. In addition to improving soil fertility, clover was an ideal fodder crop, so the improved grain production simultaneously increased livestock production. Farmers could grow more livestock because there was more food of higher quality, and the manure was an excellent fertilizer, so they could have even more productive crops. Charles Townshend learned the four-field system from Flanders and introduced it to Great Britain in 1730.
Selective breeding
In England, Robert Bakewell and Thomas Coke introduced selective breeding (mating together two animals with particularly desirable characteristics), and inbreeding (the mating of close relatives, such as father and daughter, or brother and sister, to stabilize certain qualities) in order to reduce genetic diversity in desirable animals programs from the mid 18th century. Robert Bakewell cross-bred the Lincoln and Longhorn sheep to produce the New Leicester variety. These methods proved successful in the production of larger and more profitable livestock.
Technology from Flanders
The British Agricultural Revolution was sparked in part by advancements in Flanders, including the aforementioned four-crop rotation. Due to the large and dense population of Flanders, which forced farmers to take advantage of every inch of usable land, the country had become a pioneer in drainage and reclamation technology. Many Flemish experts went to what is now called The Netherlands (then called Holland) and reclaimed land there. Finally, Dutch experts like Cornelius Vermuyden brought the technology to Britain. Selectively bred animals were of a better quality than different animals.
Effects on history
The agricultural productivity of Britain grew significantly in the period of the agricultural revolution. It is estimated that the productivity of wheat was about 19 bushels per acre in 1720 and that it has grown to 21-22 bushels in the middle of the eighteenth century. It declined slightly in the decades of 1780 and 1790 but it began to grow again by the end of the century and reached a peak in the 1840s around 30 bushels per acre, stabilising thereafter.
The Agricultural Revolution in Britain proved to be a major turning point in history. The population in 1750 reached the level of 5.7 million. This had happened before: in around 1350 and again in 1650. Each time, either the appropriate agricultural infrastructure to support a population this high was not present or plague or war occurred (which may have been related), a Malthusian Catastrophe occurred, and the population fell. However, by 1750, when the population reached this level again, an onset in agricultural technology and new methods without outside disruption, and also the effects of sugar imports, allowed the population growth to be sustained.
The increase in population led to more demand from the people for goods such as clothing. A new class of landless labourers, products of enclosure, provided the basis for cottage industry, a stepping stone to the Industrial Revolution. To supply continually growing demand, shrewd businessmen began to pioneer new technology to meet demand from the people. This led to the first industrial factories. People who once were farmers moved to large cities to get jobs in the factories. It should be noted that the British Agricultural Revolution not only made the population increase possible, but also increased the yield per agricultural worker, meaning that a larger percentage of the population could no longer work in agriculture but could and/or had to work in these new, post-Agricultural Revolution jobs.
The British Agricultural Revolution was the cause of drastic changes in the lives of British women. Before the Agricultural Revolution, women worked alongside their husbands in the fields and were an active part of farming. The increased efficiency of the new machinery, along with the fact that this new machinery was often heavier and difficult for a woman to work, made this unnecessary and impractical, and women were relegated to other roles in society. To supplement the family's income, many went into cottage industries. Others became domestic servants or were forced into professions such as prostitution. The new, limited roles of women, dubbed by one historian as "this defamation of women workers", (Valenze) fuelled prejudices of women only being fit to work in the home, and also effectively separated them from the new, mechanised areas of work, leading to a divide in the pay between men and women.[citation needed]
Towards the end of the 19th century, the substantial gains in British agricultural productivity were rapidly offset by competition from cheaper imports, made possible by advances in transportation, refrigeration, and many other technologies. From that point, farming in Britain entered a period of economic struggle which continues to the present day.
See also
Agricultural gang
Division of labour
Urbanization
Agricultural Revolutions:
Neolithic Revolution
Green Revolution
References
^ The Rotherham Plough
^ http://eh.net/bookreviews/library/0529
Overton, Mark. Agricultural Revolution in England 1500 - 1850 (19 September 2002), Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521568595
Valenze, Deborah (1995). The First Industrial Woman. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. p. 183. ISBN 0195089812.
Kagan, Donald. The Western Heritage (London: Prentice Hall, 2004), p. 535-9. ISBN 0131828398
Categories: History of agriculture by country | History of the British Isles | Revolutions | Economic history of the United Kingdom | Agriculture in the United KingdomHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from November 2008
Parmigiano-Reggiano
China Product
Production
The sign on the border of the provinces of Parma and Piacenza, indicating the start of the area of origin
Parmigiano-Reggiano is made from raw cow's milk. The whole milk of the morning milking is mixed with the naturally skimmed milk (it is left in large shallow tanks to allow the cream to separate) of the previous evening's milking, resulting in a part skim mixture. The milk is pumped into copper-lined vats (copper heats and cools quickly). Starter whey is added, and the temperature is raised to 3335 C. Calf rennet is added, and the mixture is left to curdle for 1012 minutes. The curd is then broken up mechanically (spinitura in Italian) into small pieces (around the size of rice grains). The temperature is then raised to 55 C with careful control by the cheese-maker. The curd is left to settle for 4560 minutes. The compacted curd is collected in a piece of muslin before being divided in two and placed in moulds. There are 1100 L of milk per vat, producing two cheeses each. The curd making up each wheel at this point weighs around 45 kg (100 lb). The remaining whey in the vat was traditionally used to feed the pigs from which "Prosciutto di Parma" (cured Parma ham) was produced. The barns for these animals were usually just a few yards away from the cheese production rooms. swiss chocolates
The cheese is put into a stainless steel round form that is pulled tight with a spring powered buckle so the cheese retains its wheel shape. After a day or two, the buckle is released and a plastic belt imprinted numerous times with the Parmigiano-Reggiano name, the plant's number, and month and year of production is put around the cheese and the metal form is buckled tight again. The imprints take hold on the rind of the cheese in about a day and the wheel is then put into a brine bath to absorb salt for 2025 days. After brining, the wheels are then transferred to the aging rooms in the plant for 12 months. Each cheese is placed on wooden shelves that can be 24 cheeses high by 90 cheeses long or about 4,000 total wheels per aisle. Each cheese and the shelf underneath it is then cleaned manually or robotically every 7 days. The cheese is also turned at this time. salt rising bread
A factory of Parmigiano-Reggiano. There are two storerooms, both with 20 of these shelves. brazilian cheese bread
At 12 months, the Consorzio Parmigiano-Reggiano inspects each and every cheese. The cheese is tested by a master grader whose only instruments are a hammer and his ear. By tapping the wheel at various points, he can identify undesirable cracks and voids within the wheel. Those cheeses that pass the test are then heat branded on the rind with the Consorzio's logo. Those that don't pass the test used to have their rinds marked with lines or crosses all the way around to inform consumers that they are not getting top-quality Parmigiano-Reggiano; more recent practices simply have these lesser rinds stripped of all markings.
Gourmets consider Parmigiano-Reggiano a splendid "table cheese" for eating not merely for grating. In Emilia-Romagna it is often paired with pears and walnuts and enjoyed at the end of a meal. Many consider it to be at its best at 24 to 30 months, when it is still soft and crumby, with tiny crunchy spots from the crystallised salt, yet rich and complex in flavor.
Traditionally, cows have to be fed only on grass or hay, producing grass fed milk. Only natural whey culture is allowed as a starter, together with calf rennet.
The only additive allowed is salt, which the cheese absorbs while being submerged for 20 days in brine tanks saturated to near total salinity with Mediterranean sea salt. The product is aged an average of two years. The cheese is produced daily, and it can show a natural variability. True Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese has a sharp, complex fruity/nutty taste with a strong umami flavour and a slightly gritty texture. Inferior versions can impart a bitter taste.
The average Parmigiano-Reggiano wheel is about 1824 centimetres (7.19.4 in) high, 4045 centimetres (1618 in) in diameter, and weighs 38 kilograms (84 lb).
Uses of the cheese include being grated with a grater over pasta, stirred into soup and risotto, and eaten in chunks with balsamic vinegar. It is also a key ingredient in alfredo sauce and pesto.
Slivers and chunks of the hardest parts of the crust can also be employed as an ingredient in soups (to which they add a subtler flavour) or even be slowly chewed until soft; Italian mothers have fed parmigiano crusts to their children for generations, trusting in their high calcium content to help them develop stronger teeth and bones.
One traditional use of a whole Parmigiano head is to use it as a serving pot. On special occasions, when one has dozens of guests to serve (culinary fairs, banquets, large parties...) the whole head is used up and thoroughly hollowed out so that the bare crust remains, steaming pasta can then be poured in it and served from therein.
History
Parmesan cheese being taste tested at a festival in Modena with balsamic vinegar drizzled on top
According to legend, Parmigiano-Reggiano was created in the course of the Middle Ages in Bibbiano, in the province of Reggio Emilia. Its production soon spread to the Parma and Modena areas. Historical documents show that in the 13th-14th century Parmigiano was already very similar to that produced today which suggests that its origins can be traced to far earlier.
It was praised as early as 1348 in the writings of Boccaccio; in the Decameron, he invents mountain, all of grated Parmesan cheese, on which well folk that do nought else but make macaroni and raviuoli, and boil them in capon's broth, and then throw them down to be scrambled for; and hard by flows a rivulet of Vernaccia, the best that ever was drunk, and never a drop of water therein.2]
During the Great Fire of London of 1666, Samuel Pepys buried his armazan cheese, as well as [his] wine and some other things in order to preserve them.
In the memoirs of Giacomo Casanova, he remarked that the name "Parmesan" was a misnomer in his time (mid-18th century) as the cheese was produced in the town of Lodi, not Parma. This comment originates probably from the fact that a grana cheese very similar to the "Parmigiano", the Grana Padano, is produced in the Lodi area.
Use of the name
Parmigiano-Reggiano festival in Modena; each wheel (block of cheese) costs 490.
The name is trademarked, and in Italy there is legal exclusive control exercised over its production and sales by the Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese Consorzio, which was created by a governmental decree. There are strict criteria each wheel must meet early in the aging process, when the cheese is still soft and creamy, to merit the official seal and be placed in storage for aging. Because it is widely imitated, Parmigiano-Reggiano has become an increasingly regulated product and in 1955 it became what is known as a certified name (which is not the same as a brand name).
Thus in the European Union, "Parmigiano-Reggiano" is a protected designation of origin; legally the name refers exclusively to the Parmigiano-Reggiano DOP cheese manufactured in a limited area in Northern Italy. Outside Europe, most notably in the United States, commercially produced imitator cheeses may be however be legally sold under the generic name Parmesan. When sold in Europe, such cheese are obliged to use another name, such as Kraft's "pamesello italiano".
The European Union's campaign against the use of protected European food names by producers outside the designated region of origin could eventually lead to world wide dropping of the word "Parmesan" from cheese products originating outside the designated production region of Parmigiano-Reggiano.
Other cheeses sold as Parmesan
An American version of grated Parmesan.
The Grana Padano is an Italian cheese quite similar to the Parmigiano-Reggiano. Differences are:
It is produced mainly in Lombardy, the name Padano derives from the Pianura Padana
Cows can also be fed silage, not grass and hay only
The milk contains slightly less fat
Milk of several days can be used
No organic certifications
No controlled proceedings over cow breeds
No cow feed control
It is aged for up to 20 months
Commercial Parmesan cheeses common in North America typically differ from Parmigiano-Reggiano in several ways:
The cheese is aged for a shorter time
The curds for Parmigiano-Reggiano are cut into fragments the size of wheat grains, which is much finer than the fragments created in the manufacture of the American version of Parmesan. The smaller curds drain more effectively.
American Parmesan is mechanically pressed to expel excess moisture.
Parmesan wheels in the United States average 11 kg (24 pounds). The size difference can affect their salt saturation during the brining process; Parmigiano-Reggiano on average contains two-thirds less salt than the average Parmesan.
It is often sold grated.
There is no outside body regulating or supervising the quality of the raw ingredients or of the production process.
Aroma and chemical components
Parmigiano has many aroma-active compounds, including various aldehydes and butyrates. Butyric acid and isovaleric acid together are sometimes used to imitate the dominant aromas.
Parmigiano is also particularly high in glutamate, containing as much as 1.2 g of glutamate per 100 g of cheese, making it the naturally produced food with the second highest level of glutamate, after Roquefort cheese. The strong presence of glutamates explains the strong umami taste of Parmigiano.
See also
Reggianito, an Argentine cheese in the Parmesan style
List of Italian PDO cheeses
List of Italian cheeses
List of cheeses
Chicken parmesan, a U.S. Italian-style dish
Parmo, an English delicacy labeled for now strictly historical reasons as having to do with Parmesan cheese
References
^ "Standard di Produzione." Disciplinare del Formaggio Parmigiano Reggiano D.O.P. (fourth paragraph). Famiglia Gastaldello, 2005-2008.
^ Giovanni Boccaccio, Decamerone VIII 3. The translation quoted here is that by J.M. Rigg.
^ See Pepys diary entry for 4 September, 1666
^ Cox, James. "What's In a Name?" USA Today, 9 September 2003.
^ Qian, Michael; Reineccius, Gary. "Potent Aroma Compounds in Parmigiano Reggiano Cheese Studied Using a Dynamic Headspace (purge-trap) Method." Flavour and Fragrance Journal, Volume 18 Issue 3, 7 April 2003 (pp. 252259).
^ "I Know What I Like: Understanding Odor Preferences." The Fragrance Foundation, 2008.
External links
Consorzio del Formaggio Parmigiano-Reggiano (English)
Caseificio Sociale Castellazzo (English)
Video - How Parmigiano-Reggiano is made (Italian)
Photos of the production process
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Parmesan cheese
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Italian cheeses (PDO)
Asiago Basket Bel Paese Bocconcini Bra Brs Burrata Caciocavallo Caciotta Caprino Casciotta d'Urbino Castelrosso Casu marzu Crescenza Crucolo Dolcelatte Fontina Gorgonzola Grana (Padano) Liptauer Mascarpone Monte Veronese Morlacco Mozzarella (di Bufala Campana) Parmigiano-Reggiano Pasta filata Pecorino (Romano Sardo Siciliano) Piave Provolone Raschera Reblochon Ricotta Robiola Romano Scamorza Sottocenere al tartufo Stracchino Stracciatella di Bufala Taleggio Toma
Categories: Italian cheeses | Italian products with protected designation of origin | Cow's-milk cheeses | Umami enhancersHidden categories: Articles needing additional references from November 2007 | All articles needing additional references
Ambilight
China Product
Versions
Ambilight is marketed in several versions, mostly depending on the number of independent light channels, anywhere from one to four or more.
The Ambilight Spectra name refers to a frame surrounding the display panel that lights up in colors matching the edges of the displayed image, in addition to illuminating the wall behind the television screen. mouse extension cable
AmBX is a version of Ambilight designed for PC gaming. Similarly, light effects occur resulting from in-game events and actions. fpc cable
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The concept of adapting ambient light with a video display already existed, but proposed solutions required a separate channel for the light effects in addition to the video and audio channels. Ambilight uses the video channel itself to generate color and the concepts as well as various methods of calculating the color from the video signal are protected by patents.
References
^ Method and system for controlling an ambient light and lighting unit. International patent application WO 2004006570 (2004).
^ Ambient lighting derived from video content and with broadcast influenced by perceptual rules and user preferences International patent application WO 2006003624 (2006). There are several other patents as well, although it is not clear which ones actually cover the Ambilight systems that are being sold.
External links
Seduction by Light - The official Philips website for the new Ambilight / Aurea family product range
Aurea Phillips Blog - Ambilight Images and Technical Specifications
Wong Kar Wai to create exclusive film for Philips next generation Ambilight television
Boblight - DIY collection of free tools to control RGB lights similar to Ambilight
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Categories: Television technology | Philips products | Television technology stubsHidden categories: Articles with a promotional tone | All articles with a promotional tone
Suggested retail price
China Product
United States
Under earlier U.S. state Fair Trade statutes, the manufacturer was able to impose a fixed price for items. These fixed prices could offer some price protection to small merchants in competition against larger retail organizations. These were determined to be in restraint of free trade. However, some manufacturers have adopted MSRP a price at which the item is expected to sell. This may be unrealistically high, opening the market to "deep discounters" who are able to sell products substantially below the MSRP while still making a profit. Recent trends have been for manufactures to set the MSRP closer to the "street price" the price at which items actually sell in a free market.
Automobiles self adhesive label manufacturer
Main article: Monroney sticker iron palm bag
A common use for MSRP can be seen in automobile sales in the United States. Prior to the spread of manufacturer's suggested retail pricing, there were no defined prices on vehicles and car dealers were able to impose arbitrary markups, often with prices adjusted to what the salesperson thought the prospective purchaser would be willing to pay for a particular vehicle. rhinestone buckle
Currently, the MSRP, or "sticker price" the price of a vehicle as labeled by the manufacturer, is clearly labeled on the windows of all new vehicles, on a Monroney sticker, commonly called the "window sticker". This is substantially different from the actual price paid to the manufacturer by the dealer, which is known as the invoice price.
Minimum advertised price
Minimum advertised price (also known as resale price maintenance, or RPM) is the practice of restricting pricing at the consumer level. Price fixing agreements are illegal in many countries when members and terms in the agreement match predefined legal criteria.
Fixed pricing established between a distributor and seller or between two or more sellers may violate antitrust laws in the United States.
In Leegin Creative Leather Prods., Inc. v. PSKS, Inc., 127 S. Ct. 2705 (2007), the Supreme Court considered whether federal antitrust law established per se ban on minimum resale price agreements and, instead, allow resale price maintenance agreements to be judged by the rule of reason, the usual standard applied to determine if there is a violation of section 1 of the Sherman Act. In holding that vertical price restraints should be judged by the rule of reason, the Court overruled Dr. Miles Medical Co. v. John D. Park & Sons Co., 220 U.S. 373 (1911).
Because the rule of reason applies, minimum RPM agreements may still be unlawful. In fact, in Leegin, the Court identified at least two ways in which a purely vertical minimum RPM agreement might be illegal. First, a] dominant retailer ... might request resale price maintenance to forestall innovation in distribution that decreases costs. A manufacturer might consider it has little choice but to accommodate the retailer's demands for vertical price restraints if the manufacturer believes it needs access to the retailer's distribution network." Second, a] manufacturer with market power ... might use resale price maintenance to give retailers an incentive not to sell the products of smaller rivals or new entrants.
In both of these examples, an economically powerful firm uses minimum the RPM agreement to exclude or raise entry barriers for its competition.
In addition, federal law is not the only source of antitrust claims as almost all of the states have their own antitrust laws. Leegin dealt only with a claim arising under Section 1 of the Sherman Act.
Rack rate
Rack rate is the travel industry term for the published full price of a hotel room, which the customer would pay if he or she walked into the hotel off the street and asked for a room. While lower than the maximum rate that the hotel may be allowed to charge under local laws, it is higher than the rate most travel agents can book for their customers. Sometimes the terms run of the house or walk-up rate are used to refer to the same highest rate. The term rack rate is also used by travel-related service providers, such as car rental companies or travel mobile phone rental companies, to refer to the same highest rate they would charge customers with no pre-bookings.
External links
FTC Illegal Business Practices
Record Companies Settle FTC Charges of Restraining Competition in CD Music Market
MSRP and a real value of a car
Categories: Anti-competitive behaviour | Competition | PricingHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from December 2009 | Articles with unsourced statements from June 2007
Blowdryer
China Product
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2010) meditation timer
The normal use of an hairdryer jumbo universal remote control
A blowdryer or hairdryer is an electromechanical device designed to blow cool or hot air over wet or damp hair, in order to accelerate the evaporation of water particles and dry the hair. Blowdryers allow to better control the shape and style of hair, by accelerating and controlling the formation of temporary hydrogen bonds inside each strand. These hydrogen bonds are very powerful (allowing for stronger hair shaping than even the sulfur bonds formed by permanent waving products), but are temporary and extremely vulnerable to humidity. They disappear with a single washing of the hair. zenith universal remotes
Hairstyles using blowdryers usually have volume and discipline, which can be further improved by the use of styling products and hairbrushes during drying to add tension, hold and lift.
Blowdryers were invented around the end of the 19th century. The first model was created by Alexandre F. Godefoy in his salon in France. The handheld, household hair-dryer first appeared in 1920.
Function
A 1900 blow dryer
Most models use coils of wire that have a high electric resistivity and heats rapidly with an electric current. A fan usually blows ambient air past the hot coils resulting in heated air effective for drying. The heating element in most hairdryers is a bare, coiled nichrome wire that is wrapped around insulating mica heating boards. Nichrome wire is used in heating elements, because of two important properties: it is a poor conductor of electricity and it does not oxidize when heated.
A survey of stores in 2007 showed that many hair dryers have ceramic heating elements (like ceramic heaters) - because of their "instant heat" capability.
Many of these hair dryers have "cool shot" buttons which turn off the heater and just blow room temperature air while the button is pressed.
Many also feature "ionic" operation, to reduce the amount of static electricity build-up in the hair. Manufacturers also claim this makes the hair "smoother".
See also
Curling iron
Categories: Hairdressing | Home appliances | 1920 introductionsHidden categories: Articles lacking sources from February 2010 | All articles lacking sources
Cycling glove
China Product
Warmth
Gloves are frequently used to keep the hands warm, a function that is particularly necessary when cycling in cold weather. The design of most modern bicycles is such that the rider's hands remain on the handlebars while cycling, a position that leaves them exposed to weather. The hands are also relatively inactive, and do not have a great deal of muscle mass, which also contributes to the possibility of chill. Gloves are therefore vital for insulating the hands from cold, wind, and evaporative cooling while riding a bicycle.
Comfort shakespeare fishing reels
Cycling places a good deal of stress on the hands, in the form of prolonged pressure against handlebars and transmission of sudden road shocks through handlebars to the hands. The severity of discomfort can be mitigated somewhat by riding position, but is essentially inherent in most designs of upright bicycle. However, choice of weight distribution between the saddle and handlebars is usually determined by other factors, such as aerodynamics, control and long-term comfort. Padded gloves or handlebar grips are therefore useful to increase comfort for a given geometry. fishing bite alarm
However, excess padding can lead to other problems. Normally the hands will rest on the bones in the heel of the hand - too much padding will tend to press on the soft tissues between these and can compress the nerves in the hands, causing something akin to carpal tunnel syndrome. ugly stick rod
Protection
Putting a hand out to break a fall is a natural reaction. However, the hands are one of the more difficult parts of the body to repair. There is little or no spare skin, and immobilising the hands sufficiently to promote healing involves significant inconvenience to the patient. So, many cyclists choose to wear gloves all year round to help avoid skin damage in a fall.
Types of gloves
Fingerless cycling gloves, also known as track mitts. These have a lightly padded palm of leather (natural or synthetic), gel or other material. Historically track mitts were string-backed but now are almost always made of a man-made textile containing elastane. Leather-palmed track mitts and cork handlebar tape are widely reckoned to work well for drop-bar touring bikes.
Windproof/waterproof full-finger gloves are useful in spring and autumn, when real warmth is not an issue. The Gore-Tex Windstopper brand is a well-known one. These are also generally showerproof but will become soggy in heavy rain. Palms may be treated to improve friction with brake levers.
Winter gloves tend to be bulkier, perhaps being made in two parts, inner and outer, so that the inner can be washed. They will tend to have longer cuffs, to tuck into jackets and avoid the wrists being chilled, a waterproof exterior and a layer of insulation between that and the liner or inner glove.
Mittens are good in extreme cold as they allow a single pocket of warm air to form around the fingers. They make use of brakes somewhat awkward. Some riders use a thin inner glove and a skiing mitten over the top when riding in sub-zero (Celsius) temperatures.
Lobster-claw gloves are a relatively recent innovation, halfway between glove and mitten. Two fingers are placed in each of two wide fingers, giving much of the advantage of mittens but making use of brake levers much easier.
Weathershields (made by a company called DryBike) are small water- and windproof shields that attach to the handlebars and protect the hands from rain and wind. Though not gloves, they serve a similar purpose.
Buying gloves
Gloves should fit snugly but not be tight. Pay particular attention to the length of the fingers as the fingertips can become very cold if the glove's fingers are not long enough. Ideally the glove should be loose on the fingers and fit comfortably around the palm. A tight glove will tend to restrict blood flow and make the hand cold. In very cold weather it is often advisable to follow the skier's practice of thin inner gloves and outer padded waterproof mittens. Silk inner gloves are exceptionally warm and can usually be sourced from mountaineering and other outdoor sports shops.
Care of gloves
Sweat from hands can make one's gloves become unpleasant quite quickly, so it is best to store them so that air can circulate inside if at all possible (for example on a radiator). After a wet or hard ride it may be best to turn them inside-out to dry. Leather gloves can be washed in cool water and are reportedly best dried out on the hands.
External links
Cycle clothing at h2g2
Categories: Cycling equipment | Gloves | Sports clothingHidden categories: Articles needing additional references from February 2008 | All articles needing additional references
